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Current theories of leadership are based mainly on the industrial paradigm emphasizing the preeminence of positional leaders and the machine-like qualities of organizations. Evolutionary and attributional biases tend to reinforce the industrial paradigm. The authors propose an ecological theory of leadership that makes 4 important assertions: (a) Effective leadership processes involve temporary resolutions of a tension between the traditional industrial approach and the neglected ecological approach; (b) specific leaders are less important than they appear because the ecological context is more important than what leaders decide to do; (c) organizations are more adaptive when there is a diversity of genuine input into decision-making processes; and (d) leadership itself is an emergent process arising from the human interactions that make up the organization. Open Systems and Feedback Loops Any organization is completely dependent on inflows of material, information, and other resources. These organizational systems are, themselves, part of larger open systems (economic, political, social, and environmental). Treating organizations as closed systems does not reflect the human enterprise that is the organization (Katz & Kahn, 1978). Furthermore,

Executive SummaryTraditional, mechanistic models of leadership are inadequate for dealing with the serious adaptive challenges facing the modern world. The complex, dynamic systems that result when these adaptive challenges interact requires that we draw upon ecological principles to understand the role that leadership processes can play in creating a sustainable, generative future. Ignoring the systemic nature of leadership processes creates an illusion that traditional positional leaders should be the focus of leadership studies. We propose that a more useful focus is the systemic processes out of which leadership emerges. A theory of leadership derived from principles of ecology calls for a radical shift in our perspectives of leadership. It emphasizes individual responsibility, a long term perspective, developing capacities of individuals within organizations, and harmony with nature, while showing the way toward sustainability for future generations. 63 What new understanding of leadership needs to be developed in order for us to create a sustainable, generative future, a future that is able to support and nourish life? The popular notion of leadership depicts one individual in an appointed, elected, or paid position making the decisions that direct an organization toward success. While highly publicized appointments are made, the recently elected take office, and major corporations hire new CEOs, we see the degradation of our environment, an increasing gap between rich and poor, businesses that go bankrupt, and ethical problems in those who hold public office--all signs of failed leadership. A sustainable world demands new values, attitudes, behaviors, and a greater commitment to cooperative solutions to current challenges. This paper articulates how leadership processes must adapt ' to a changing world and introduces a conceptualization of leadership based upon ecological principles, individual responsibility, and the development of human capacities.We begin by making the case for change in the popular notions of leadership. Then, we propose a theory of leadership based upon ecological principles and describe the nature of systemic leadership processes. We discuss some major issues raised by the theory and end the paper with strategies for change derived from the theory.The Case for Change Leadership based on position and authority is inadequate for the challenges we face today. We need leadership which increases our capacity to learn new ways of understanding, defining, and solving the complex problems we are facing. Ron Heifetz (1994) calls these complex problems adaptive challenges. They demand leadership models that develop the capacity of organizations and people to respond to these challenges. Waiting for great individual leaders to guide and direct organizations as well as guarantee our safety and security is no longer possible. Adaptive Challenges of a Changing WorldOur world is faced with a series of adaptive challenges. These challenges are fundamental global issues with which communities must...