Epigenetic alterations in cell-type-specific gene expression control the transition of neural stem cells (NSCs) from predominantly neurogenic to predominantly gliogenic phases of differentiation, but how this switch occurs is unclear. Here, we show that brahma-related gene 1 (Brg1), an ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling factor, is required for the repression of neuronal commitment and the maintenance of NSCs in a state that permits them to respond to gliogenic signals. Loss of Brg1 in NSCs in conditional brg1 mutant mice results in precocious neuronal differentiation, such that cells in the ventricular zone differentiate into post-mitotic neurons before the onset of gliogenesis. As a result, there is a dramatic failure of astrocyte and oligodendrocyte differentiation in these animals. The ablation of brg1 in gliogenic progenitors in vitro also prevents growth-factor-induced astrocyte differentiation. Furthermore, proteins implicated in the maintenance of stem cells, including Sox1, Pax6 and Musashi-1, are dramatically reduced in the ventricular zones of brg1 mutant mice. We conclude that Brg1 is required to repress neuronal differentiation in NSCs as a means of permitting glial cell differentiation in response to gliogenic signals, suggesting that Brg1 regulates the switch from neurogenesis to gliogenesis.

OBJECTIVE Oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) recruited to demyelinating lesions often fail to mature into oligodendrocytes (OLs) that remyelinate spared axons. The glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) accumulates in demyelinating lesions and has been implicated in the failure of OPC maturation and remyelination. We tested the hypothesis that OPCs in demyelinating lesions express a specific hyaluronidase, and that digestion products of this enzyme inhibit OPC maturation. METHODS Mouse OPCs grown in vitro were analyzed for hyaluronidase expression and activity. Gain of function studies were used to define the hyaluronidases that blocked OPC maturation. Mouse and human demyelinating lesions were assessed for hyaluronidase expression. Digestion products from different hyaluronidases and a hyaluronidase inhibitor were tested for their effects on OPC maturation and functional remyelination in vivo. RESULTS OPCs demonstrated hyaluronidase activity in vitro and expressed multiple hyaluronidases including HYAL1, HYAL2, and PH20. HA digestion by PH20 but not other hyaluronidases inhibited OPC maturation into OLs. In contrast, inhibiting HA synthesis did not influence OPC maturation. PH20 expression was elevated in OPCs and reactive astrocytes in both rodent and human demyelinating lesions. HA-digestion products generated by the PH20 hyaluronidase but not another hyaluronidase inhibited remyelination following lysolecithin-induced demyelination. Inhibition of hyaluronidase activity lead to increased OPC maturation and promoted increased conduction velocities through lesions. INTERPRETATION We determined that PH20 is elevated in demyelinating lesions and that increased PH20 expression is sufficient to inhibit OPC maturation and remyelination. Pharmacological inhibition of PH20 may therefore be an effective way to promote remyelination in multiple sclerosis and related conditions.

During the metamorphosis of holometabolous insects, the larval nervous system is restructured to provide the circuitry needed by the developing adult. Prominent new centers in the brain, the antennal lobes, arise to receive olfactory afferent axons from the developing adult antennae and provide an excellent system in which to study the development of synapses in a central nervous system. We have examined the anatomy and physiology of developing synapses in the antennal lobes of the moth Manduca sexta during the 18 days of metamorphic adult development. On day 5, the neuropil of the newly emerging antennal lobe condenses into distinct glomeruli, in which intercellular junctional complexes have already begun to form. Although some junctions have associated synaptic vesicles, most complexes are desmosome-like until day 9, when the number of synaptic complexes begins to increase. Early synapses are characterized by membrane-associated densities in at least two abutting cellular processes and a small number of synaptic vesicles clustered near the membrane of one process. As adult development proceeds, the membrane-associated densities become denser and more extensive, and the number of synaptic vesicles in the clusters increases. At day 14 synapses appear ultrastructurally mature, and almost all junctions in the neuropil can be identified as synaptic. Not until day 9 do antennal lobe neurons begin to respond postsynaptically when the antennal nerve is stimulated electrically, suggesting that the earliest synapses observed in the electron microscope may not be made by antennal nerve axons. At first the postsynaptic responses are graded and fatigue rapidly. By day 11, the antennal lobe neurons respond with action potentials, but the fatigability does not decline to adult levels until day 13. Filling of antennal lobe neurons with cobalt reveals that the arborizations of both local interneurons and output neurons continue to mature morphologically until about day 13. Previous work (Schweitzer,

Shiverer-immunodeficient (Shi-id) mice demonstrate defective myelination in the central nervous system (CNS) and significant ataxia by 2 to 3 weeks of life. Expanded, banked human neural stem cells (HuCNS-SCs) were transplanted into three sites in the brains of neonatal or juvenile Shi-id mice, which were asymptomatic or showed advanced hypomyelination, respectively. In both groups of mice, HuCNS-SCs engrafted and underwent preferential differentiation into oligodendrocytes. These oligodendrocytes generated compact myelin with normalized nodal organization, ultrastructure, and axon conduction velocities. Myelination was equivalent in neonatal and juvenile mice by quantitative histopathology and high-field ex vivo magnetic resonance imaging, which, through fractional anisotropy, revealed CNS myelination 5 to 7 weeks after HuCNS-SC transplantation. Transplanted HuCNS-SCs generated functional myelin in the CNS, even in animals with severe symptomatic hypomyelination, suggesting that this strategy may be useful for treating dysmyelinating diseases.