Archival records were used to compare the therapy process in 30 brief psychodynamic and 32 cognitive-behavioral therapies. Verbatim transcripts of 186 treatment sessions were rated with the Psychotherapy Process Q-set, designed to provide a standard language for the description of process. Results demonstrated that although some features were common to both treatments, there were important differences. Cognitive-behavioral therapy promoted control of negative affect through the use of intellect and rationality combined with vigorous encouragement, support, and reassurance from therapists. In psychodynamic psychotherapies, there was an emphasis on the evocation of affect, on bringing troublesome feelings into awareness, and on integrating current difficulties with previous life experience, using the therapist-patient relationship as a change agent. The clinical theoretical precepts underlying psychodynamic treatments received considerable support. In cognitive-behavioral therapies, there was evidence for the importance of developmental, as opposed to rationalist, intervention strategies for treatment outcome.

The hierarchical factor structure of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) (Davis, 1980) inventory was investigated with the Schmid-Leiman orthogonalization procedure (Schmid & Leiman, 1957). The sample consisted of 409 college students. The analysis found that the IRI could be factored into four first-order factors, corresponding to the four scales of the IRI, and two second-order orthogonal factors, a general empathy factor and an emotional control factor.

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The way in which one copes with, or defends against, shame has important implications. The Compass of Shame Scale (CoSS) was developed to assess use of the four shamecoping styles described by Nathanson (1992): Attack Self, Withdrawal, Attack Other, and Avoidance. Reliability and criterion validity were explored (N = 322). Subscale reliabilities ranged from .74 to .91. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a model with four primary factors. A differentiated pattern of correlations was obtained between CoSS scales and general internalized shame, self-esteem, anger, coping, and psychological symptoms. Results provided empirical support for Nathanson's Compass of Shame model and the validity of the CoSS.

This paper presents a review of the research on proportional reasoning. Methodologies used in proportional reasoning studies are presented first. The discussion is then organized around the following topics: strategies used to solve proportion problems, including erroneous strategies; factors that influence performance on proportion problems, both task-related and subject-related; training studies. The discussion is accompanied by suggestions for educational and research applications.For a mathematician, a proportion is a statement of equality of two ratios, i.e., a/b = c/d. Although most people are probably unaware of the mathematical definition of proportions, they do use them in familiar situations. Proportions are also widely used in more scientific contexts. Despite its importance in everyday situations, in the sciences, and in the educational system, the concept of proportions is difficult. It is acquired late (see, for example, Newton et al. 1981, or Pallrand, 1979. Moreover, many adults do not exhibit mastery of the concept (e.g., Capon and Kuhn, 1979).Because it is both useful and difficult to master, proportional reasoning has been the object of many research studies in the last 25 years. During this period, the research has become increasingly sophisticated, changing from a view of proportional reasoning as a global ability, or a manifestation of a general cognitive structure, to a more differentiated view focusing on describing the procedures used in proportional reasoning and how they are influenced by task and person parameters. However, as the studies became more differentiated in style some parameters were studied in detail without attention being paid to other tasks parameters. As a result, the body of research suffers from many gaps, it lacks cohesiveness and it is difficult to apply to mathematics education.It is the purpose of this paper to: (1) organize the research findings around the relevant task and subject parameters, (2) suggest research to fill the gaps in the literature, and (3)suggest ways to apply these findings in education. It begins with a discussion of the methodologies used in studying proportional reasoning. M E T H O D O L O G YStudies of proportional reasoning have employed different methodologies and tasks. A list of the tasks used in various experimental studies can be found in