Mechanosensing bone osteocytes express large amounts of connexin (Cx)43, the component of gap junctions; yet, gap junctions are only active at the small tips of their dendritic processes, suggesting another function for Cx43. Both primary osteocytes and the osteocyte-like MLO-Y4 cells respond to fluid flow shear stress by releasing intracellular prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ). Cells plated at lower densities release more PGE 2 than cells plated at higher densities. This response was significantly reduced by antisense to Cx43 and by the gap junction and hemichannel inhibitors 18 ␤-glycyrrhetinic acid and carbenoxolone, even in cells without physical contact, suggesting the involvement of Cx43-hemichannels. Inhibitors of other channels, such as the purinergic receptor P2X 7 and the prostaglandin transporter PGT, had no effect on PGE 2 release. Cell surface biotinylation analysis showed that surface expression of Cx43 was increased by shear stress. Together, these results suggest fluid flow shear stress induces the translocation of Cx43 to the membrane surface and that unapposed hemichannels formed by Cx43 serve as a novel portal for the release of PGE 2 in response to mechanical strain.

The connexin 43 (Cx43) hemichannel (HC) in the mechanosensory osteocytes is a major portal for the release of factors responsible for the anabolic effects of mechanical loading on bone formation and remodeling. However, little is known about how the Cx43 molecule responds to mechanical stimulation leading to the opening of the HC. Here, we demonstrate that integrin α5β1 interacts directly with Cx43 and that this interaction is required for mechanical stimulation-induced opening of the Cx43 HC. Direct mechanical perturbation via magnetic beads or conformational activation of integrin α5β1 leads to the opening of the Cx43 HC, and this role of the integrin is independent of its association with an extracellular fibronectin substrate. PI3K signaling is responsible for the shear stress-induced conformational activation of integrin α5β1 leading to the opening of the HC. These results identify an unconventional function of integrin that acts as a mechanical tether to induce opening of the HC and provide a mechanism connecting the effect of mechanical forces directly to anabolic function of the bone.

Bone tissues respond to mechanical loading/unloading regimens to accommodate (re)modeling requirements; however, the underlying molecular mechanism responsible for these responses is largely unknown. Previously, we reported that connexin (Cx) 43 hemichannels in mechanosensing osteocytes mediate the release of prostaglandin, PGE 2 , a crucial factor for bone formation in response to anabolic loading. We show here that the opening of hemichannels and release of PGE 2 by shear stress were significantly inhibited by a potent antibody we developed that specifically blocks Cx43-hemichannels, but not gap junctions or other channels. The opening of hemichannels and release of PGE 2 are magnitude-dependent on the level of shear stress. Insertion of a rest period between stress enhances this response. Hemichannels gradually close after 24 h of continuous shear stress corresponding with reduced Cx43 expression on the cell surface, thereby reducing any potential negative effects of channels staying open for extended periods. These data suggest that Cx43-hemichannel activity associated with PGE 2 release is adaptively regulated by mechanical loading to provide an effective means of regulating levels of extracellular signaling molecules responsible for initiation of bone (re)modeling.The skeleton regulates its architecture and mass to meet structural and metabolic needs. To fulfill its structural functions, this complex tissue must adapt to loading and unloading while simultaneously regulating the metabolic demands of the skeleton. Numerous in vivo animal studies show the essential role of mechanical loading for bone formation and remodeling; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms, in particular how bone cells adapt to mechanical stimulation, remain largely uncharacterized.When mechanical forces are applied to bone, several potential stimuli occur including changes in hydrostatic pressure, direct cell strain, fluid flow, and electric potentials. These changes lead to fluid movement through the bone (1-3). Shear stress induced by mechanical loading facilitates the exchange of nutrients and bone modulators, and elicits biochemical responses. Osteocytes are well positioned in the bone to sense the magnitude of mechanical strain and are essential for the skeleton adaptive response to load. Experimental studies have shown that osteocytes are sensitive to stress applied to both intact bone tissue and in cell culture (4 -6). Encased within mineralized tissue, their dendritic morphology allows them to connect through small tunnels called canaliculi to form a threedimensional network not only with adjacent osteocytes but also to connect to cells on the bone surface and bone marrow.Connexins (Cx), 2 gap junction-forming proteins, belong to a multigene family expressing four transmembrane domains. The regions corresponding to transmembrane and extracellular domains are highly conserved. Cx43 has been identified in most types of bone cells (7-13) and is the major connexin expressed in osteocyte-like MLO-Y4 cells and primary osteocy...

Fluid flow conditioned medium and PGE 2 stimulated cAMP production and PKA activity suggesting that PGE 2 released by mechanically stimulated cells is responsible for the activation of cAMP and PKA. The adenylate cyclase activators, forskolin and 8-bromo-cAMP, enhanced intercellular connectivity, the number of functional gap junctions, and Cx43 protein expression, whereas the PKA inhibitor, H89, inhibited the stimulatory effect of PGE 2 on gap junctions. These studies suggest that the EP 2 receptor mediates the effects of autocrine PGE 2 on the osteocyte gap junction in response to fluid flow-induced shear stress. These data support the hypothesis that the EP 2 receptor, cAMP, and PKA are critical components of the signaling cascade between mechanical strain and gap junction-mediated communication between osteocytes.

In 2012, a novel coronavirus (CoV) associated with severe respiratory disease, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV; previously known as human coronavirus-Erasmus Medical Center or hCoV-EMC), emerged in the Arabian Peninsula. To date, 114 human cases of MERS-CoV have been reported, with 54 fatalities. Animal models for MERS-CoV infection of humans are needed to elucidate MERS pathogenesis and to develop vaccines and antivirals. In this study, we developed rhesus macaques as a model for MERS-CoV using intratracheal inoculation. The infected monkeys showed clinical signs of disease, virus replication, histological lesions, and neutralizing antibody production, indicating that this monkey model is suitable for studies of MERS-CoV infection.