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Experimental engineering models have been used both to model general phenomena, such as the onset of turbulence in fluid flow, and to predict the performance of machines of particular size and configuration in particular contexts. Various sorts of knowledge are involved in the method-logical consistency, general scientific principles, laws of specific sciences, and experience.

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The concept of similar systems arose in physics, and appears to have originated with Newton in the seventeenth century. This chapter provides a critical history of the concept of physically similar systems, the twentieth century concept into which it developed. The concept was used in the nineteenth century in various fields of engineering (Froude, Bertrand, Reech), theoretical physics (van der Waals, Onnes, Lorentz, Maxwell, Boltzmann) and theoretical and experimental hydrodynamics (Stokes, Helmholtz, Reynolds, Prandtl, Rayleigh). In 1914, it was articulated in terms of ideas developed in the eighteenth century and used in nineteenth century mathematics and mechanics: equations, functions and dimensional analysis. The terminology physically similar systems was proposed for this new characterization of similar systems by the physicist Edgar Buckingham. Related work by Vaschy, Bertrand, and Riabouchinsky had appeared by then. The concept is very powerful in studying physical phenomena both theoretically and experimentally. As it is not currently part of the core curricula of STEM disciplines or philosophy of science, it is not as well known as it ought to be. Contents 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Similar Systems: the 20th century concept 2.3 Newton and Galileo 2.3.1 Newton on Similar Systems 2.3.2 Galileo 2.4 Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 Engineering and similarity 'laws' 2.4.3 Similar Systems in Theoretical Physics 2.4.4 Similar Systems in Hydrodynamics 2.5 1914: The Year of "Physically Similar Systems" 2.5.1 Overview of relevant events of the year 1914 2.5.2 Stanton and Pannell 2.5.3 Buckingham and Tolman 2.5.

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