Works councils have been an important vehicle of collective representation in most Western European countries. They have facilitated trade union involvement in employment relations at enterprise level, even when membership levels are relatively low. However, there have been recent doubts about the resilience of the institution, particularly given its lower coverage in expanding areas of employment such as private services and small firms. This article presents qualitative data on the `start-up' of works councils in France, Germany and Spain, with an emphasis on these sectors. The extension of works councils to difficult sectors depends on establishing clarity about their role, strengthening legislative support, deepening the engagement of external trade unions in their development and ensuring that enterprise actors have realistic expectations.

The paper compares trends and case studies of individual and collective employment conflicts in France and the UK. Its focus is on the extent to which conciliation, mediation and mediation are used within the two different industrial relations systems. In both, third-party intervention is associated with the legitimacy conveyed by the involvement of both employers and trade unions, or by the presence of an impartial judge. The research finds extensive use of alternative dispute resolution is taking place in both countries, with dispute resolution taking place commonly in the justice system in France, while in the UK there is extensive use made of the arms-length independent government agency, Advisory Conciliation and Arbitration Service. However, the research concludes that the most effective third-party interventions take place when they are combined with mobilisation, rather than merely being the sole form of dispute resolution.

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Purpose -This article aims to examine recent labour struggles against mass redundancies in France. It seeks to understand the well reported incidences of direct action within the terrain of how industrial relations operate and are governed. Design/methodology/approach -Primary and secondary data sources are deployed to build and understand, in a grounded way, a case study of an industrial conflict. Findings -The weakness of the regulation of employers, when allied to a number of considerations like union presence, has led to radical, direct actions. This highlights that overall the source of stimulus for action is worker weakness vis-à -vis the employer and not strength. Social implications -To aid social peace in the workplace, further regulation of employer behaviour by the state is needed given the weakness of union regulation. Originality/value -The article highlights that conflict takes place primarily in contexts where the institutions of the French republic are shown to be incapable of forcing employers to respect employment laws.