The objective of the study was to assess the productivity of horticultural production factors in Poland in the years 2004- 2014. The general characteristics of horticultural holdings in Poland were determined, including the productivity of labor and capital, as well as the productivity of land per hectare of UAA. The average farm size increased by 6% on average in the period 2006-2014 and reached 6 hectares in 2014. It was found that in the horticultural farms the productivity of all factors of production in nominal terms increased. In real terms, labor productivity decreased by about 16.6%, capital productivity remained at the same level, and land productivity decreased by more than 52.3%. The production value for 1 AWU was 81,000 in 2014, for 1 ha 38 thous. zł, and for 1 zł of assets 0.38 zł. The observed tendencies of changes in factor productivity and income levels indicate that the scale of production, including farm size, is needed to grow in order to maintain the viability of farms.

Structural changes in Polish agriculture are necessary. First of all, the scale is expected to increase and, hence, input efficiency. The aim of the research is to determine whether the concentration of resources and production in Polish agriculture is taking place and what is the direction. Data from two general agricultural censuses conducted by the Central Statistical Office in 2010 and 2020 were used. It was determined what main directions of changes were observed in Polish agriculture, as well as whether there is γ-convergence in terms of land resources and the production volume in area groups of farms. For each of the analyzed variables, the importance of farms with an area of more than 20 ha increased. In 2020, they accounted for 11% of the total number of farms. They owned 56% of land and were responsible for 60% of plant production and 70% of livestock production. The share of this group increased by 7 p.p. in land use, but in the sown area (except for cereals), it was an increase of 15 p.p., and in livestock production even up to 20 p.p. For the area groups of farms, a significant γ-type divergence in the use of agricultural land and in the production of cereals, potatoes and field vegetables was confirmed. In animal production, the γ-divergence was only observed in the production of sows and poultry. For other species, there has been a concentration of production, but the ranking of farm groups has not changed. In Poland, in the decade between the agricultural censuses (2010-2020), there was a significant, favorable concentration of agricultural production on farms with a larger area. These changes, however, may be too slow for a significant transformation of Polish agriculture and an increase in its competitiveness in the EU in upcoming decades. The strong fragmentation and low economic strength of farms are still the main limitations.

The importance of biogas in the energy mix in Poland and Latvia is very low. In Poland, 306 million m3 of biogas is produced annually, and in Latvia, 56 million m3. The share of energy from agricultural biogas in Latvia is 1.6%, and in Poland, only 0.12%. This study analyzed the impact of the structure on CO2 emissions from agricultural biogas production in Latvia and Poland. The emission was determined in accordance with the EU directive. The structure of substrates was dominated by those from the second generation, i.e., manure and food waste. In Latvia, it was 70%, and in Poland, 78%. The manure share was 45% and 24%, respectively. The anaerobic digestion of manure guarantees high GHG savings thanks to the avoided emissions from the traditional storage and management of raw manure as organic fertilizer. The level of emissions from the production of agricultural biogas was calculated for the variant with the use of closed digestate tanks, and it was about 10–11 g CO2/MJ, which is comparable to the emissions from solar photovoltaic sources. When using open tanks, the emission level was twice as high, but it was still many times less than from the Polish or Latvian energy mix. Such a low level of emissions resulted from the high share of manure. The level of emission reduction reached 90% compared to fossil fuels. The use of second-generation feedstock in biogas production provides environmental benefits. Therefore, if wastes are used in biogas generation, and the influence on the local environment and overall GHG emissions is positive, authorities should support such activity.

An increase in productivity in agriculture is achieved thanks to technological progress and changing the structure of production factors into more economically effective ones. The observed directions of changes include: production intensification and an increase in the capital-labour ratio. The aim of the presented research is to determine whether the level of production efficiency in vegetable farms depends on the structure of production factors involved in the farm. In this study, data from the Polish FADN for 2010-2017 were used. It was found that the productivity of inputs and profitability of production were at a similar level in each group of farms, while the profitability of work was the highest in farms with capital-intensive production techniques. It was 60% and 100% more, respectively, than in farms with land-intensive and labour-intensive techniques. On the basis of the obtained results, it can be concluded that an increase in the capital-labour ratio leads to a significant increase in labour productivity. In future, rational support for investments on farms may lead to an increase in the competitiveness of agriculture, as well as an increase in the scale of production and changes in the structure of agriculture.

The primary objective of this paper was to identify the economic, social and environmental impacts of plants and their beneficial microorganism interactions. As a plant example, the potato (Solanum tuberosum) has been chosen due to its worldwide nutritional and economic importance. Based on a systematic literature review, high importance effects were identified. From an economic point of view these were an increase in plant immunity and yield along with cost reductions and a reduction of abiotic and biotic stresses. From a social point of view, the importance of healthier food, a cleaner environment and resistant ecosystem were identified. From an environmental perspective, the effects of the increase of soil fertility and biodiversity as well as bioremediation opportunities were found to be important. The cross impact analysis of the identified effects indicate the primary importance of the economic effects, however their occurrence is determined by social effects, while the environmental ones are in a supporting position. It is argued, therefore, that the successful implementation of innovative products and technologies in potato production based on the plant – beneficial microorganism interactions will require economic empirical evidence and will be driven by social tension.