The Achilles tendon (AT) consists of fascicles that originate from the medial head of the gastrocnemius (MG), lateral head of the gastrocnemius (LG), and soleus muscle (Sol). These fascicles are reported to have a twisted structure. However, there is no consensus as to the degree of torsion. The purpose of this study was to investigate the twisted structure of the AT at the level of fascicles that originate from the MG, LG, and Sol, and elucidate the morphological characteristics. Gross anatomical study of 60 Japanese cadavers (111 legs) was used. The AT fascicles originated from the MG, LG, and Sol were fused while twisting among themselves. There were three classification types depending on the degree of torsion. Further fine separation of each fascicle revealed MG ran fairly parallel in all types, whereas LG and Sol, particularly of the extreme type, were inserted onto the calcaneal tuberosity with strong torsion. In addition, the sites of Sol torsion were 3-5 cm proximal to the calcaneal insertion of the AT. These findings provide promising basic data to elucidate the functional role of the twisted structure and mechanisms for the occurrence of AT injury and other conditions.

The aim of this study was to investigate the correlation between the masticatory function and the maxillary defect configuration, size, and remaining teeth in post-maxillectomy patients restored with an obturator prosthesis. Fifty consecutive post-maxillectomy patients (mean age 67.0) participated in this study. The subjects consisted of 26 dentate and 24 edentulous patients. Data were collected from the patients' clinical records, diagnostic casts, and a questionnaire on masticatory function to evaluate the defect configuration, size, and the masticatory function scores associated with wearing obturator prostheses. The defect size was evaluated by the ratio of defect area to the horizontal impression area. The defect configuration was assessed according to Aramany's classification and separated into unilateral and bilateral defects. The multiple regression analysis and the Mann-Whitney U-test (P<0.05) were used to assess statistical significance. The Spearman's correlation coefficient by rank test was also used to detect correlation. The following conclusions were made: (i) The presence of teeth in the maxillary dentition and the different type of the defect configuration had significant correlation with the masticatory function score (r=0.616). (ii) The masticatory function scores of the subjects differed significantly with the presence of teeth in the maxillary dentition and the different types of defect configurations (P=0.005, P=0.002, respectively). (iii) There was significant correlation between the masticatory function score and the size of the defect area in the edentulous group (r=-0.648, P=0.001). The presence of teeth, the size and configuration of the defect influenced the masticatory function of post-maxillectomy patients with obturator prostheses.

Findings on the twisting structure and insertional location of the AT on the calcaneal tuberosity are inconsistent. Therefore, to obtain a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying insertional Achilles tendinopathy, clarification of the anatomy of the twisting structure and location of the AT insertion onto the calcaneal tuberosity is important. The purpose of this study was to reveal the twisted structure of the AT and the location of its insertion onto the calcaneal tuberosity using Japanese cadavers. The study was conducted using 132 legs from 74 cadavers (mean age at death, 78.3 ± 11.1 years; 87 sides from men, 45 from women). Only soleus (Sol) attached to the deep layer of the calcaneal tuberosity was classified as least twist (Type I), both the lateral head of the gastrocnemius (LG) and Sol attached to the deep layer of the calcaneal tuberosity were classified as moderate twist (Type II), and only LG attached to the deep layer of the calcaneal tuberosity was classified as extreme twist (Type III). The Achilles tendon insertion onto the calcaneal tuberosity was classified as a superior, middle or inferior facet. Twist structure was Type I (least) in 31 legs (24%), Type II (moderate) in 87 legs (67%), and Type III (extreme) in 12 legs (9%). A comparison between males and females revealed that among men, 20 legs (24%) were Type I, 57 legs (67%) Type II, and eight legs (9%) Type III. Among women, 11 legs (24%) were Type I, 30 legs (67%) Type II, and four legs (9%) Type III. No significant differences were apparent between sexes. The fascicles of the Achilles tendon attach mainly in the middle facet. Anterior fibers of the Achilles tendon, where insertional Achilles tendinopathy is most likely, are Sol in Type I, LG and Sol in Type II, and LG only in Type III. This suggests the possibility that a different strain is produced in the anterior fibers of the Achilles tendon (calcaneal side) where insertional Achilles tendinopathy is most likely to occur in each type. We look forward to elucidating the mechanisms generating insertional Achilles tendinopathy in future biomedical studies based on the present results.

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