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11Fuel additive technology is based on the use of a solid, fuel additive (iron, aluminium, calcium and silicon 12 based oxides), to reduce NOx emission, improve the quality of fly ash and result in 1-3% coal savings for 13 pulverised coal combustion. The findings in this study have been mainly based on extensive 14 experimentation on 100kWth down fired-combustion test facility (CTF) and partially on a 260tons/hr 15 steam commercial producing water tube pf boiler. International Innovative Technologies (IIT) developed 16 this additive based technology for the combined effect of reducing NOx from the combustion of 17 hydrocarbon fuels (mainly coal) and more specifically to improve the combustion process of fossil fuels 18 resulting in an ash by product with improved loss on ignition and lower carbon content. The improvement 19 in the combustion thermal efficiency of the commercial 260tons/hr steam producing boiler has been 20 calculated as per the direct calculation method of EN BS12952-15:2003 standard. 22 23Keywords: Fuel, additive, NOx, fly ash, combustion efficiency, coal, boiler, BS EN12952-15 (2003). 24 * Corresponding author: Email:s.daood@iituk.com; speme@hotmail.co.uk 25 26 27 Introduction 28The consumption of coal is increasing continuously on a global scale and is likely to 29 increase in forthcoming years due to its cheaper pricing compared with other conventional fuels 30 and further economic expansion in developing countries. However, the environmental 31 regulations and legislation has enforced a rise in carbon floor pricing and heavy penalties 32 towards breaching caps on emissions. In USA, the environmental protection agency has 33 proposed to implement 1,100 pounds (499 kgs) of cap on CO 2 emissions generated for every 63The proof of the concept to utilise IIT's fuel additive that has already been tested on Experimental test facilities and methods 67The pilot scale combustion test facility (CTF) comprises of a down-fired pulverised coal steam air heater, flue gas recirculation or circulating pump arrangements. 95The following were the calculations utilized for the purpose of determining the Thermal 177Similarly in a separate study related to pyrolytic cracking of coal tar, the initial heavy tar in the volatile-N. The increase in the gas yield (Table 4) Effect on Loss on ignition (LOI) 254The United States of America, India, China and Australia are the major producers of fly freeze-thaw conditions. Similarly excessive carbon affects the optimum density and moisture 262 content for filling applications.

We have performed spatially continuous nanodynamic mechanical analysis on four organic-rich shale samples with different thermal maturities to extract the elastic modulus of the kerogen particles. Aliquots were rigorously prepared, and three scans were acquired from each aliquot. Subcritical nitrogen adsorption pore characterization was performed to determine the abundance of kerogen-hosted porosity. To fully characterize the pore system of samples from the oil window, toluene and then chloroform extraction were performed to remove the pore-filling hydrocarbons prior to nitrogen adsorption. The statistical distribution of the measured modulus values was analyzed to extract the properties of the shale particles. In mature samples from the peak oil generation or gas window, the kerogen porosity was the dominant pore morphology. We found that significant lowering of the kerogen particle modulus resulted from intraparticle kerogen porosity. The kerogen particle modulus in mature samples was measured as being lower (7-12 GPa) than the immature sample (15-20 GPa) due to gas-or bitumen-filled pores.

Xenotime DyPO4 and GdxDy(1−x)PO4 (x = 0.4, 0.5, 0.6) (tetragonal I41amd zircon structure) have been studied at ambient temperature under high pressures inside a diamond anvil cell with in situ Raman spectroscopy. The typical Raman‐active modes of the xenotime structure were observed at low pressures and the appearance of new Raman peaks at higher pressures indicated a phase transformation to a lower symmetry structure—likely monoclinic. Raman mode softening was observed, resulting in a line crossing at approximately 7‐8 GPa for each material and preceding the phase transformation. The onset of phase transformation for DyPO4 occurred at a pressure of 15.3 GPa. DyPO4 underwent a reversible phase transformation and returned to the xenotime phase after decompression. The transformation pressures of the solid solutions (GdxDy(1−x)PO4) were in the range 10‐12 GPa. The GdxDy(1−x)PO4 solid solutions yielded partially reversible phase transformations, retaining some of the high‐pressure phase spectrum while reforming xenotime peaks during decompression. The substitution of Gd into DyPO4 decreased the transformation pressure relative to pure DyPO4. The ability to modify the phase transformation pressures of xenotime rare‐earth orthophosphates by chemical variations of solid solutions may provide additional methods to improve the performance of ceramic matrix composites.

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