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Commercialisation of smallholder agriculture is important for rural economic growth. While previous studies have analysed effects of commercialisation on productivity and income, implications for farm household nutrition have received much less attention. We evaluate the effects of commercialisation on household food security and dietary quality with a special focus on calorie and micronutrient consumption. We also examine transmission channels by looking at the role of income, gender, and possible substitution effects between the consumption of own-produced and purchased foods. The analysis uses survey data from farm households in Kenya and a control function approach. Generalised propensity scores are employed to estimate continuous treatment effects. Commercialisation significantly improves food security and dietary quality in terms of calorie, zinc and iron consumption. For vitamin A, effects are insignificant. Commercialisation contributes to higher incomes and increased nutrients from purchased foods, but it does not reduce the consumption of nutrients from own-produced foods. Enhancing market access is important not only for rural economic growth, but also for making smallholder agriculture more nutrition-sensitive.

BackgroundThe coexistence of overweight/obesity and undernutrition is often referred to as the double burden of malnutrition (DB). DB was shown to exist in many developing countries, especially in urban areas. Much less is known about DB in rural areas of developing countries. Also, the exact definition of DB varies between studies, making comparison difficult. The objective of this study is to analyse DB problems in rural Kenya, using and comparing different DB definitions and measurement approaches.MethodsFood intake and anthropometric data were collected from 874 male and female adults and 184 children (< 5 years) through a cross-section survey in rural areas of Western Kenya. DB at the individual level is defined as a person suffering simultaneously from overweight/obesity and micronutrient deficiency or stunting. DB at the household level is defined as an overweight/obese adult and an undernourished child living in the same household, using underweight, stunting, wasting, and micronutrient deficiency as indicators of child undernutrition.ResultsDB at the individual level is found in 19% of the adults, but only in 1% of the children. DB at the household level is relatively low (1–3%) when using wasting or underweight as indicators of child undernutrition, but much higher (13–17%) when using stunting or micronutrient deficiency as indicators.ConclusionVarious forms of DB problems exist in rural Kenya at household and individual levels. Prevalence rates depend on how exactly DB is defined and measured. The rise of overweight and obesity, even in rural areas, and their coexistence with different forms of undernutrition are challenges for food and nutrition policies.

Many developing countries are undergoing a profound transformation of food systems. Especially in larger cities, supermarkets have become increasingly popular, affecting consumers' food choices and diets. Previous research showed that supermarkets can have both positive and negative effects on dietary quality and nutrition. However, which households actually use supermarkets, and to what extent? While supermarket shopping is positively correlated with income, little is known about how important supermarkets are for the diets of the poor, who are of particular interest from a food policy perspective. The poorest of the urban poor often reside in informal settlements, so they are underrepresented in official surveys. We add to the literature by analyzing food consumption data collected from households in the poorest neighborhoods of Nairobi (Kenya) and Kampala (Uganda). We find high levels of nutritional deficiencies. Despite their ubiquitous presence, supermarkets are not yet very important for the diets of the urban poor. Supermarkets only account for 3% and 0.4% of sample households' total food expenditures in Nairobi and Kampala, respectively. Especially unprocessed foods, which make up the largest share of calorie consumption, are primarily purchased in traditional retail outlets. We also show differences by food groups and income strata. Acknowledegment: This research was financially supported by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). The authors thank the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), and the National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO)-Uganda, for their research cooperation in the project "Making Value Chains Work for Food and Nutrition Security for the Vulnerable Populations in East Africa" (grant number C-030-16), and the great support during the survey.

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