World population is projected to reach its maximum (~10 billion people) by the year 2050. This 45% increase of the current world population (approaching seven billion people) will boost the demand for food and raw materials. However, we live in a historical moment when supply of phosphate, water, and oil are at their peaks. Modern agriculture is fundamentally based on varieties bred for high performance under high input systems (fertilizers, water, oil, pesticides), which generally do not perform well under low-input situations. We propose a shift of research goals and plant breeding objectives from high-performance agriculture at high-energy input to those with an improved rationalization between yield and energy input. Crop breeding programs that are more focused on nutrient economy and local environmental fitness will help reduce energy demands for crop production while still providing adequate amounts of high quality food as global resources decline and population is projected to increase.

Abstract:We are at a pivotal time in human history, as the agricultural sector undergoes consolidation coupled with increasing energy costs in the context of declining resource availability. Although organic systems are often thought of as more sustainable than conventional operations, the lack of concise and widely accepted means to measure sustainability makes coming to an agreement on this issue quite challenging. However, an accurate assessment of sustainability can be reached by dissecting the scientific underpinnings of opposing production practices and crop output between cropping systems. The purpose of this review is to provide an in-depth and comprehensive evaluation of modern global production practices and economics of organic cropping systems, as well as assess the sustainability of organic production practices through the clarification of information and analysis of recent research. Additionally, this review addresses areas where improvements can be made to help meet the needs of future organic producers, including organic-focused breeding programs and necessity of coming to a unified global stance on plant breeding technologies. By identifying management strategies that utilize practices with long-term environmental and resource efficiencies, a concerted global effort could guide the adoption of organic agriculture as a sustainable food production system.

Organic Management of Mexican Bean Beetle (Epilachna varivestis Mulsant) Infestations in Snap Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Crops Tiffany L. Fess Various methods have been suggested to control or deter MBB from attacking bean crops, however conclusive data detailing the effectiveness of control methods and their effects on green bean yield are limited. Two separate experiments were performed to compare MBB management practices in snap bean crops and determine snap bean varieties with natural tolerance to MBB infestations. P. foveolatus in snap bean crops significantly(P<0.05) reduced the larval and adult MBB populations, while increasing the bean yield in optimal growing conditions. The use of row cover and staggering of planting date proved to be unsuccessful (P>0.05) increasing bean yield, however MBB larval, pupal, and adult populations were found to be different (P<0.05) when growing conditions wee optimal. When MBB populations were above the economic threshold (1-1.5 MBB larvae per plant) in the test, tolerance to MBB infestation was not observed (P>0.05) in any of the varieties studied. iii Acknowledgments I thank all the people at West Virginia University and the surrounding community who helped me to complete my study and achieve my Master's degree in Horticulture. First, I would like to thank Dr. Sven Verlinden for believing in my abilities and allowing me a chance to advance academically along with providing great advice and guidance. To Dr. James Kotcon for helping me solve in-field dilemmas, providing me with research space, and rescuing me from dehydration. To Dr. Linda Butler for her wisdom and knowledge in entomology. To Dr. Baker for admitting me into the program, providing me with an opportunity to develop scientifically and academically. To Dr. George Seidel for helping with my statistical calculations and analyses. I would also like to thank Jim & Sue Myers and Don & Susan Sauter (Flying Ewe Farm) for allowing me space to conduct my research in their personal gardens. Lastly, I would like to thank Tom Dorsey from the NJDA Philip Alampi Beneficial Insectary, for supplying the P. foveolatus for my research, and to interested community members. Funding provided by USDA CSREES and WVA under the Hatch project WVA 004477.

Three different control methods, row cover, staggered plantings, and the release of a parasitic wasp, Pediobiusfoveolatus, were used to test effectiveness at controlling Mexican bean beetle (MBB) infestations on snap beans. The study consisted of six plots, on five different farms in the Morgantown, W. Va. area, three with and three without the application of the control methods. Releases of 15 adults and 100 larvae during flowering of the bean crop occurred at each plot. Weekly counts of the three MBB life stages, parasitized MBB larvae, and bean yields were taken. The results showed that the release of the parasitic wasp maintained the MBB populations below economic thresholds throughout the growing season. The average yield from plots that received wasp treatments was 34.2 kg, compared to 15.2 kg harvested from untreated plots. Plots that received row cover treatments were shown to be slightly more effective than staggered plantings at controlling MBB populations. Row cover plots yielded an average of 15.3 kg, in comparison to the 11.8 kg yield from untreated plots, while staggered plantings in treated plots yielded 9.5 kg, compared to 6.0 kg from untreated plots. End of season MBB populations in treated plots consisted of 75 adults, 57 pupae, 275 larvae, and 94 parasitized larvae compared to untreated populations, 98 adults, 214 pupae, 420 larvae on average. In conclusion, increased yields can likely be correlated to decreased MBB populations, indicating the release of P. foveolatusas a viable option for control of MBB, especially in organic systems.