Pastoralists and their livestock share much of the habitat of the snow leopard ( Uncia uncia) across south and central Asia. The levels of livestock predation by the snow leopard and other carnivores are high, and retaliatory killing by the herders is a direct threat to carnivore populations. Depletion of wild prey by poaching and competition from livestock also poses an indirect threat to the region's carnivores. Conservationists working in these underdeveloped areas that face serious economic damage from livestock losses have turned to incentive programs to motivate local communities to protect carnivores. We describe a pilot incentive program in India that aims to offset losses due to livestock predation and to enhance wild prey density by creating livestock-free areas on common land. We also describe how income generation from handicrafts in Mongolia is helping curtail poaching and retaliatory killing of snow leopards. However, initiatives to offset the costs of living with carnivores and to make conservation beneficial to affected people have thus far been small, isolated, and heavily subsidized. Making these initiatives more comprehensive, expanding their coverage, and internalizing their costs are future challenges for the conservation of large carnivores such as the snow leopard.El Papel de Programas de Incentivos en la Conservación del Uncia uncia Resumen: Pastores y su ganado comparten gran parte del hábitat del leopardo Uncia uncia en el centro y sur de Asia. Los niveles de depredación de ganado por leopardos y otros carnívoros son altos, y la matanza en represalia por pastores es una amenaza directa para las poblaciones de carnívoros. La reducción de presas silvestres por cacería furtiva y la exclusión competitiva por ganado también representa una amenaza indirecta para los carnívoros de la región. Los conservacionistas que trabajan en estasáreas no desarrolladas que enfrentan serios impactos económicos por pérdidas de ganado han impulsado programas de incentivos para motivar a las comunidades locales a que protejan a los carnívoros. Describimos un programa piloto de incentivos en India enfocado a reducir pérdidas debido a la depredación de ganado y a incrementar la densidad de presas silvestres mediante la creación deáreas libres de ganado en tierras comunales. También describimos como la generación de ingresos de artesanías en Mongolia esta ayudando a reducir la cacería furtiva y la matanza en represalia de Uncia uncia. Hasta ahora, sin embargo, las iniciativas para compensar los costos de convivir con carnívoros y hacer que la conservación sea benéfica para la gente afectada han sido pequeñas, aisladas y fuertemente subsidiadas. Hacer que estas iniciativas sean más integrales, aumenten su cobertura e internalicen sus costos son retos futuros para la conservación de carnívoros mayores tales como el leopardo Uncia uncia.

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Population monitoring programmes and estimation of vital rates are key to understanding the mechanisms of population growth, decline or stability, and are important for effective conservation action. We report, for the first time, the population trends and vital rates of the endangered snow leopard based on camera trapping over four years in the Tost Mountains, South Gobi, Mongolia. We used robust design multi-season mark-recapture analysis to estimate the trends in abundance, sex ratio, survival probability and the probability of temporary emigration and immigration for adult and young snow leopards. The snow leopard population remained constant over most of the study period, with no apparent growth (λ = 1.08+−0.25). Comparison of model results with the “known population” of radio-collared snow leopards suggested high accuracy in our estimates. Although seemingly stable, vigorous underlying dynamics were evident in this population, with the adult sex ratio shifting from being male-biased to female-biased (1.67 to 0.38 males per female) during the study. Adult survival probability was 0.82 (SE+−0.08) and that of young was 0.83 (SE+−0.15) and 0.77 (SE +−0.2) respectively, before and after the age of 2 years. Young snow leopards showed a high probability of temporary emigration and immigration (0.6, SE +−0.19 and 0.68, SE +−0.32 before and after the age of 2 years) though not the adults (0.02 SE+−0.07). While the current female-bias in the population and the number of cubs born each year seemingly render the study population safe, the vigorous dynamics suggests that the situation can change quickly. The reduction in the proportion of male snow leopards may be indicative of continuing anthropogenic pressures. Our work reiterates the importance of monitoring both the abundance and population dynamics of species for effective conservation.

Previous genetic studies using neutral markers such as allozymes, mtDNA and minisatellite loci have demonstrated varying amounts of population structure in cod Gadus morhua throughout the Atlantic. Microsatellite loci, which are potentially the most informative of presently available neutral genetic markers, have been applied extensively within western and eastern Atlantic areas but not on a range-wide basis. In the present study, six microsatellite DNA loci were used to screen cod samples from nine locations throughout the geographic range from the Scotian Shelf in the West Atlantic to the Barents and Baltic Seas in the east. Overall F ST value was 0Á03 (P ¼ < 0Á001) across all samples. Statistically significant population differences over all loci combined were evident between more geographically distant samples, using either heterogeneity tests or F ST analysis, with at least one locus showing significant differences between all samples (prior to Bonferroni correction). A significant correlation was observed between genetic and geographical distance, suggesting a higher level of historical and contemporary gene flow between adjacent populations than more distant populations. Samples from either end of the geographic range (Scotian Shelf and Baltic Sea) were particularly distinct when analysed using the STRUCTURE programme and also showed a high level of selfassignment when individuals of either the Scotian Shelf or Baltic Sea were tested against the entire data set. The present microsatellite study demonstrates a high level of geographic population structure between the western Atlantic, middle and eastern Atlantic and Baltic Sea, and thus, the findings should be useful in devising overall management and conservation strategies for the species.