Despite an abundance of literature on the topic of adolescent identity formation, little is known about the relationship between socioeconomic status and identity processes, particularly potential effects of poverty on identity formation. Three correlates of poverty-derogatory self-relevant information (in the form of social stigma, marginalization, and disparate treatment), limitations in opportunity structure, and excessive stress-are hypothesized to circumscribe identity processes in poor adolescents. We present a theory that extends current and historical thinking about identity, culminating in an attempt to explain how and through what processes these correlates might impact identity formation.

High school‐age adolescents (N=262) in two samples completed a measure of identity style, along with measures of self‐esteem, hopelessness, delinquent attitudes, educational expectations, and optimism/efficacy. Analysis of variance was used to evaluate the relationship between identity style and the other psychosocial variables. Participants classified as having a diffuse/avoidant orientation had lower self‐esteem and higher delinquent attitude scores than those with either an information or normative orientation. At the same time, the diffuse‐avoidant style was associated with higher hopelessness and lower optimism/efficacy scores than the normative and information styles. The normative and information styles did not differ significantly in terms of the dependent variables. Results also indicated that males were more likely to be diffused and females more likely to be information‐oriented.

A study was conducted to explore adolescent well-being as a function of family climate versus family structure. Two hundred seventy-eight adolescents (52% female, 48% male; mean age = 14.78 years) completed questionnaires that assessed family structure (nuclear, single-parent, step), family climate (level of satisfaction with one's family and level of negative affect in one's family), and several indicators of current well-being (educational expectations, self-esteem, hopelessness, delinquent attitude scores, and optimism). Participant well-being did not vary by family structure. However, family climate and well-being were significantly related. Implications of the study's findings are discussed.

Two samples of university students (combined N= 299; mean age = 24.97; 86% female) completed the care subscale of the parental bonding instrument and the Fear of Intimacy scale. Analyses indicated that recollected parental care and fear of intimacy were negatively correlated. Concurrently, it was found that (1) participants who reported having a warm, caring relationship with at least one parent were significantly less likely to suffer from a fear of intimacy and (2) participants who scored low on the measure of fear of intimacy were more likely to have mothers who exhibited high levels of warmth and care. Results supported the proposition that the nature of the parent–child relationship has long-reaching effects on how individuals approach romantic relationships.

The Identity Style Inventory-Revised for a Sixth-Grade Reading Level (ISI-6G) was administered to samples of community college students (N=99) and middle school and high school students (N=320). Tests of between-groups differences indicated that the college sample had a significantly lower mean diffuse-avoidant score on the ISI-6G than the middle and high school sample. In terms of actual assignment to identity styles, college students were significantly more likely to be classified as informational or normative, while the younger students were more likely to be diffuse-avoidant. The mean ages of participants for each of the three identity styles were compared, and it was found that diffuseavoidant participants had the lowest mean age (15.54 years), while individuals with an informational orientation had the highest mean age (17.20 years). Results suggest that, in general, identity style evolves with age and maturity and the general trajectory or progression involves movement away from a diffuse-avoidant orientation. Findings are discussed in terms of current knowledge of neurocognitive development during adolescence and early adulthood.