This paper details the results of a meta-analysis incorporating all the appropriately augmented TPB studies in order to statistically determine the additive effects of anticipated regret (AR) both to the prediction of intentions after the TPB variables and to the direct impacts on behaviour. Over a number of studies there was a strong AR-intention relationship (r(+)=.47, k=25, N=11,254), and AR significantly and independently added to the prediction of intentions over and above the TPB variables; there was a moderate relationship between AR and behaviour (r(+)=.28, k=8, N=2,035) with AR having a direct and significant impact on prospective behaviour, and there was support for the unique contribution of AR even when accounting for attitude. Implications and issues for further research are discussed.

The mere measurement of cognitions and in particular intentions has been shown to be sufficient to change behaviour. This study assessed the impact of measuring anticipated regret in addition to intentions and other cognitions on recorded cervical smear attendance rates following invitation in a sample of women. A total of 4,277 women received an invitation for cervical screening and information leaflet: 1,500 of whom also received a standard theory of planned behaviour questionnaire in relation to screening (TPB only group) and a further 1,500 of whom also received a TPB questionnaire plus anticipated regret questions in relation to screening (TPB plus regret group). Total recorded attendance rates indicated significantly higher attendance (ps<.05) in the two experimental groups compared to control (Control, 21%; TPB only, 26%; and TPB plus regret, 26%). However, among those returning questionnaires, there was a significantly increased attendance rate (p<.001) in the TPB plus regret group (65%) compared to the TPB only group (44%). Follow up analyses among those completing questionnaires indicated this effect to be moderated by intentions with a significant difference only apparent among strong intenders. The discussion considers the implications for understanding the 'mere measurement effect' and the use of anticipated regret to change behaviour.

The current meta-analysis estimated the magnitude of the impact of asking intention and self-prediction questions on rates of subsequent behavior, and examined mediators and moderators of this question–behavior effect (QBE). Random-effects meta-analysis on 116 published tests of the effect indicated that intention/prediction questions have a small positive effect on behavior (d+ = 0.24). Little support was observed for attitude accessibility, cognitive dissonance, behavioral simulation, or processing fluency explanations of the QBE. Multivariate analyses indicated significant effects of social desirability of behavior/behavior domain (larger effects for more desirable and less risky behaviors), difficulty of behavior (larger effects for easy-to-perform behaviors), and sample type (larger effects among student samples). Although this review controls for co-occurrence of moderators in multivariate analyses, future primary research should systematically vary moderators in fully factorial designs. Further primary research is also needed to unravel the mechanisms underlying different variants of the QBE.

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Regret and intention stability were shown to be important variables within the TPB in understanding intentions and behaviour of smoking initiation in adolescents.