Contaminated water with hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) is a serious environmental problem. This study aimed to evaluate the Cr(VI) removal by zero valent iron nanoparticles (nZVI) reduction process and the impact of Cr(VI), nZVI and combined treatment with nZVI and Cr(VI) on tomato growth performance. To evaluate the Cr(VI) toxic effect on germination capability, seeds were exposed to increasing Cr(VI) concentrations up to 1000 mg L −1. The inhibition of seed germination and the decrease of hypocotyl and root length started from Cr(VI) 5 mg L −1. Under treatment with Cr(VI) + nZVI 5 mg L −1 , seed germination, hypocotyl and root length resulted significantly higher compared to Cr(VI) 5 mg L −1 treatment. The impact of only nZVI was investigated on chlorophyll and carotenoid in leaves; iron levels in leaves, roots, fruits and soil; carotenoid, fat-soluble vitamin and nicotianamine in mature fruits. A significant increase of leaf chlorophyll and carotenoids was observed after nZVI 5 mg L −1 treatment compared to controls. No significant variations were observed in carotenoids, fat-soluble vitamins and nicotianamine levels after treatment with nZVI 5 mg L −1 in mature fruits. For their ability to reduce Cr(VI) and to stimulate tomato growth, nZVI might to be considered as alternative for remediation purposes. According to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry and the International Agency for Research on Cancer, chromium (Cr) has been ranked 7 th among the top 20 hazardous substances and no.1 carcinogen 1,2. Cr occurs in different oxidation states (−2 to + 6), but hexavalent chromate Cr(VI) and trivalent chromite Cr(III) forms are the most common and stable in the natural environment 3. Compared to Cr(III), Cr(VI) is highly mobile in soil, extremely toxic to living organisms with mutagenic, carcinogenic and teratogenic potential 4. On the other hand, Cr(III) is significantly less toxic and serves as an essential element in trace amounts. Environmental contamination of Cr(VI) is gaining increasing consideration worldwide due to its high levels in the water and soil deriving from natural and anthropogenic activities including industrial applications such as metallurgical, refractories and chemicals 3. The exposure to Cr(VI) can cause several serious diseases in nervous, kidney, hematopoietic and gastrointestinal systems of humans 5-7. Cr(VI) is also a toxic heavy metal for plants and it is harmful to their development and metabolism, interfering with plant growth, nutrient uptake and photosynthesis, inducing enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species, causing lipid peroxidation and altering the antioxidant activities 8. It is also important to stress that Cr uptake by crops and accumulation in edible plant parts organs with serious risks for consumer health 5,9. In order to remove Cr(VI) from soil and water and eventually reuse the reclaimed water for irrigation purposes, several methods have been researched and reviewed extensively. These include chemical reduction to Cr(III), solvent extraction, chelat...

Botrytis cinerea, responsible for grey mold diseases, is a pathogen with a broad host range, affecting many important agricultural crops, in pre and post harvesting of fruits and vegetables. Commercial fungicides used to control this pathogen are often subjected to photolysis, volatilization, degradation, leaching, and runoff during application. In this context, the use of a delivery system, based on poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) represents an innovative approach to develop new pesticide formulations to successfully fight B. cinerea infections. In order to study NPs uptake, B. cinerea conidia and mycelium were treated with PLGA NPs loaded with the high fluorescent probe coumarin 6 (Cu6-PLGA NPs) and analyzed under ApoTome fluorescence microscopy. The observations revealed that 50 nm Cu6-PLGA NPs penetrated into B. cinerea conidia and hyphae, as early as 10 min after administration. Pterostilbene, a natural compound, and fluopyram, a synthetic antifungal, were entrapped in PLGA NPs, added to B. cinerea conidia and mycelium, and their antifungal activity was tested. The results revealed that the compounds loaded in NPs exhibited a higher activity against B. cinerea. These results lay the foundations for the use of PLGA NPs as a new strategy in plant pest management.

Xanthones are a class of secondary metabolites produced by plant organisms. They are characterized by a wide structural variety and numerous biological activities that make them valuable metabolites for use in the pharmaceutical field. This review shows the current knowledge of the xanthone biosynthetic pathway with a focus on the precursors and the enzymes involved, as well as on the cellular and organ localization of xanthones in plants. Xanthone biosynthesis in plants involves the shikimate and the acetate pathways which originate in plastids and endoplasmic reticulum, respectively. The pathway continues following three alternative routes, two phenylalanine-dependent and one phenylalanine-independent. All three routes lead to the biosynthesis of 2,3′,4,6-tetrahydroxybenzophenone, which is the central intermediate. Unlike plants, the xanthone core in fungi and lichens is wholly derived from polyketide. Although organs and tissues synthesizing and accumulating xanthones are known in plants, no information is yet available on their subcellular and cellular localization in fungi and lichens. This review highlights the studies published to date on xanthone biosynthesis and trafficking in plant organisms, from which it emerges that the mechanisms underlying their synthesis need to be further investigated in order to exploit them for application purposes.

For the first time the antifungal activity of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was evaluated against Botrytis cinerea, that it is one of the phytopathogenic fungi which causes the greatest damage in agriculture. In in-vitro tests, the greatest inhibitory effect of DMSO on fungal grow was recorded at pH 6. A significant growth inhibition was caused by 0.5% DMSO at 96 h post-inoculation. With higher DMSO concentrations, significant effects were recorded starting from 48 h post-inoculation. As the medium pH decreased, the inhibitory effect of DMSO also decreased. At pH 4 and 5 significant growth inhibition was caused by 1% DMSO starting from 72 h post-inoculation. At all tested pH values, a total growth inhibition was caused by ! 2% DMSO. On tomato leaves infected with B. cinerea, 2% DMSO significantly decreased the extent of damaged leaf area. The administration of DMSO at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 2% through nebulization on leaves of young Solanum lycopersicum and Lactuca sativa plants did not change the chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm and U PSII ) at any of the experimental times. Overall, the data obtained suggest that, at the concentrations tested, DMSO is toxic to B. cinerea, while it is well tolerated by lettuce and tomato plants.

Poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) is a biodegradable, biosafe, and biocompatible copolymer. The Aspergillus section Nigri causes otomycosis localized in the external auditory canal. In this research, Aspergillus brasiliensis, a species belonging to the Nigri section, was tested. Coumarin 6 and pterostilbene loaded in poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles (PLGA-coumarin6-NPs and PLGA-PTB-NPs) were tested for fungal cell uptake and antifungal ability against A. brasiliensis biofilm, respectively. Moreover, the activity of PLGA-PTB-NPs in inhibiting the A. brasiliensis infection was tested using Galleria mellonella larvae. The results showed a fluorescence signal, after 50 nm PLGA-coumarin6-NPs treatment, inside A. brasiliensis hyphae and along the entire thickness of the biofilm matrix, which was indicative of an efficient NP uptake. Regarding antifungal activity, a reduction in A. brasiliensis biofilm formation and mature biofilm with PLGA-PTB-NPs has been demonstrated. Moreover, in vivo experiments showed a significant reduction in mortality of infected larvae after injection of PLGA-PTB-NPs compared to free PTB at the same concentration. In conclusion, the PLGA-NPs system can increase the bioavailability of PTB in Aspergillus section Nigri biofilm by overcoming the biofilm matrix barrier and delivering PTB to fungal cells.