Summary In tasks of associative learning, animals establish new links between unrelated items by using information about trial outcome to strengthen correct/rewarded associations and modify incorrect/unrewarded ones. To study how hippocampal neurons convey information about reward and trial outcome during new associative learning, we recorded hippocampal neurons as monkeys learned novel object-place associations. A large population of hippocampal neurons (50%) signaled trial outcome by differentiating between correct and error trials during the period after the behavioral response. About half these cells increased their activity following correct trials (correct-up cells) while the remaining half fired more following error trials (error up cells). Moreover, correct up cells but not error up cells conveyed information about learning by increasing their stimulus-selective response properties with behavioral learning. These findings suggest that information about successful trial outcome conveyed by correct up cells may influence new associative learning through changes in the cell’s stimulus-selective response properties.

Introduction: Terminalia paniculata and Madhuca longifolia are widely used plants in the folk medicine for different ailments. Many of their traditional uses are based on the antioxidant property. But, till now, the antioxidant property of these plants has not been scientifically proved. Hence, in the present work, a comparative study of the antioxidant property of these plants has been taken up. Materials and Methods: The methanolic extracts of Terminalia paniculata and Madhuca longifolia were evaluated by in vitro methods for the free radical scavenging and antioxidant properties. The models used were ABTS (2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), Nitric oxide, hydroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide scavenging. Butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, and Ascorbic acid were used as the standard antioxidants for comparison. Results: Both the extracts possessed significant antioxidant property. M. longifolia exhibited higher activity in case of DPPH, ABTS, hydrogen peroxide radical scavenging, whereas, T. Paniculata exhibited higher scavenging efficacy in case of nitric oxide and hydroxyl radicals. The antioxidant property of these plants might be due to the phenolic content. Conclusion: The antioxidant potential of these plants suggest their possible use to reduce the oxidative stress and hence, possible use as supplements in diabetes, liver problems, inflammatory conditions or cancer like diseases which are due to increased oxidative stress. Further studies are needed to prove their pharmacological applications.

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There is increasing awareness of therapeutic and nutritive importance of goat milk. Increasing evidences show a surge in harnessing the potential of bioactive milk components. This study reports Gaddi goat milk composition and antioxidant activity in different lactation stages. A significant (p < 0.05) higher pH (7.05 ± 0.03) and lactose (4.28% ± 0.07%) were noted in late lactation. Total phenol (mg TAE/100 ml) was 56.99 ± 2.32, 8.15 ± 0.44, and 7.05 ± 0.03 in whole milk, whey and casein, respectively. 2, 2‐Diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity and protein (4.06% ± 0.19%) were higher, whereas fat was lowest (6.00% ± 0.28%) in late lactation milk. It is envisaged that late lactation Gaddi goat milk with splendid biological activities, could be a source of milk‐derived bioactive nutraceuticals to thwart oxidative stress and aging. Practical applications Milk is an important source of complex proteins, enzymes and peptides of diverse biological activities. Goat milk has assumed importance in humans, particularly in infants, as alternative to cattle milk. Milk composition and antioxidant activity of Gaddi goat milk and its protein fractions were assessed for bioactive potential. The casein protein fraction of Gaddi goat milk proved to be a potent antioxidant component and may be used as futuristic nutraceuticals. This is the first study unravelling antioxidant traits of Gaddi goat milk, whey and casein in different lactation stages.

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