MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding regulatory RNAs that reduce stability and/or translation of fully or partially sequence-complementary target mRNAs. In order to identify miRNAs and to assess their expression patterns, we sequenced over 250 small RNA libraries from 26 different organ systems and cell types of human and rodents that were enriched in neuronal as well as normal and malignant hematopoietic cells and tissues. We present expression profiles derived from clone count data and provide computational tools for their analysis. Unexpectedly, a relatively small set of miRNAs, many of which are ubiquitously expressed, account for most of the differences in miRNA profiles between cell lineages and tissues. This broad survey also provides detailed and accurate information about mature sequences, precursors, genome locations, maturation processes, inferred transcriptional units, and conservation patterns. We also propose a subclassification scheme for miRNAs for assisting future experimental and computational functional analyses.

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Inhalation of silica crystals causes inflammation in the alveolar space. Prolonged silica exposure can lead to the development of silicosis, an irreversible, fibrotic pulmonary disease. The mechanisms by which silica and other crystals activate immune cells are not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that silica and aluminum salt crystals activate the NALP3 inflammasome. NALP3 activation requires crystal phagocytosis and crystal uptake leads to lysosomal damage and rupture. Sterile lysosomal damage is also sufficient to induce NALP3 activation and inhibition of phagosomal acidification or cathepsin B impairs NALP3 activation. These results indicate that the NALP3 inflammasome can sense lysosomal damage induced by various means as an endogenous danger signal.

The IL-1 family cytokines are regulated on transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. Pattern recognition and cytokine receptors control pro-IL-1β transcription whereas inflammasomes regulate the proteolytic processing of pro-IL-1β. The NLRP3 inflammasome, however, assembles in response to extracellular ATP, pore-forming toxins, or crystals only in the presence of proinflammatory stimuli. How the activation of gene transcription by signaling receptors enables NLRP3 activation remains elusive and controversial. In this study, we show that cell priming through multiple signaling receptors induces NLRP3 expression, which we identified to be a critical checkpoint for NLRP3 activation. Signals provided by NF-κB activators are necessary but not sufficient for NLRP3 activation, and a second stimulus such as ATP or crystal-induced damage is required for NLRP3 activation.