Although asthenopia is a frequent and relevant clinical problem in childhood, with potential consequences for learning, the scarcity of studies about the prevalence and clinical impact of asthenopia hinders the effective planning of public health measures.

BackgroundStudies show great variability in the prevalence of hyperopia among children. This study aimed to synthesize the existing knowledge about hyperopia prevalence and its associated factors in school children and to explore the reasons for this variability.MethodsThis systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines. Searching several international databases, the review included population- or school-based studies assessing hyperopia through cycloplegic autorefraction or cycloplegic retinoscopy. Meta-analysis of hyperopia prevalence was performed following MOOSE guidelines and using the random effects model.ResultsThe review included 40 cross-sectional studies. The prevalence of hyperopia ranged from 8.4% at age six, 2-3% from 9 to 14 years and approximately 1% at 15 years. With regard to associated factors, age has an inverse association with hyperopia. The frequency of hyperopia is higher among White children and those who live in rural areas. There is no consensus about the association between hyperopia and gender, family income and parental schooling.ConclusionFuture studies should use standardized methods to classify hyperopia and sufficient sample size when evaluating age-specific prevalence. Furthermore, it is necessary to deepen the understanding about the interactions among hyperopic refractive error and accommodative and binocular functions as a way of identifying groups of hyperopic children at risk of developing visual, academic and even cognitive function sequelae.

This study reports AA in a large sample of children and therefore may contribute to current knowledge on AA norms. In order to avoid the impact of outliers, it proposes the use of the median and percentiles to define AA standards by specific age. A set of studies using precise AA measurement and large sample size are needed to determine clinical standards for AA.

ObjectiveTo assess asthenopia prevalence and associated factors in schoolchildren aged 6–16.MethodsThis was a cross-sectional study of all children attending the first to eighth grades at two public schools in the urban region of a medium-sized town in Southern Brazil between April and December 2012. A questionnaire on socioeconomic and cultural matters was answered by parents, while the children answered a questionnaire on asthenopia-related symptoms. The children underwent a complete visual function examination, including measurement of visual acuity, refraction test, cover test, stereopsis, heterophoria assessment, near point of convergence, and accommodative convergence/accommodation ratio.ResultsAsthenopia prevalence was 24.7% in a total sample of 964 children. Visual acuity of 20/25 or better in both eyes was found in 92.8% of the children. The stereopsis test was normal in 99.4% of them, and some kind of strabismus was found in 3.5%. About 37.8% had astigmatism, 71.6% had mild hyperopia, 13.6% had moderate hyperopia, and 6.1% were myopic. Near point of convergence was abnormal in 14.0% of the children, and the accommodative convergence/accommodation ratio was found to be altered in 17.1% of them.ConclusionChildren and adolescents have expressive prevalence of asthenopia. The prevalence of visual function alterations does not differ from the general population, and, therefore, they are not prerequisites. It is very important that its mechanisms and risk factors be better defined. Health professionals need to be on the lookout for complaints of visual fatigue because of its potential to influence learning and school performance.

ResumoO presente estudo investigou a prática de esportes individuais e coletivos e fatores associados em jovens com idade média de 11 anos, pertencentes a uma coorte de nascimentos. Informações dos jovens e de suas mães foram coletadas por meio de questionários. O desfecho foi dividido em prática de esportes individuais e coletivos. Uma análise por meio de regressão de Poisson foi conduzida para estabelecer os fatores associados à prática esportiva, obedecendo a um modelo conceitual de análise com as variáveis independentes hierarquizadas. Um total de 4350 jovens foi estudado. A prática de esportes coletivos foi menor nas meninas -68,1% (IC95% 66,2 -70,0) em comparação aos meninos -82,1% (IC95% 80,5 -83,7). Nos esportes individuais, a prevalência foi de 12,9% (IC95% 11,6 -14,4) e 18,9% (IC95% 17,3 -20,6) em meninas e meninos, respectivamente. Entre as meninas, a prática de esportes individuais relacionou-se diretamente com nível econômico e inversamente com assistir televisão. Nos meninos este desfecho associou-se com estudar em escolas privadas e ter mães fisicamente ativas. Em esportes coletivos, a prática foi menor naqueles que despendem maior tempo assistindo TV. Em ambos os sexos houve uma relação direta entre o uso regular do vídeo-game e a prática de esportes. Políticas públicas devem considerar os diferentes aspectos relacionados à prática esportiva e atender a disparidades socioeconômicas no acesso a diferentes modalidades esportivas. Além disso, o maior acesso a diferentes locais de práticas esportivas, bem como o incentivos de pais, amigos e ambiente escolar devem ser fortalecidos.