Water pollution by heavy metals is one of the leading environmental concerns as a result of intense anthropogenic pressure on the aquatic environment. This constitutes a significant limitation to the human right of access to drinking water. In this context, the risk to humans from exposure to heavy metals and arsenic in water from rivers subject to mining influence in the Central Andes of Peru was assessed. Water samples were collected from seven rivers at 63 sampling sites, and concentrations of Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn, and As were determined using flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Cluster analysis was used to group 21 sampling sites into four groups with similar chemical characteristics, and principal component analysis was used to simplify the complex relationship between the toxic elements by generating two main components with a total percentage of variation of 86%. Fe, Zn, and As had higher percentages of contribution in the Mantaro, Cunas, and Chia rivers. The hazard quotient was highest for children and adults. The hazard index for ingestion of all the studied heavy metals and As was higher than the threshold value (HIing > 1). HIing in 43% of the rivers indicated that the adult population is at risk of non-carcinogenic effects, and HIing in 14% of the rivers revealed a very high health risk. The risk of cancer by ingestion for children varied from medium to high risk and for adults from low to high risk.

Graphical abstract

Heavy metals are transferred from the abiotic environment to living organisms, accumulate in food, contaminate the food chain, and are an important route of human exposure involving a potential health risk. In this study, the concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Fe, Pb, Zn and As) in agricultural soils and tubers of Solanum tuberosum spp. andigena (native potato) were evaluated. Also, an assessment of the health risk associated with the daily intake by the local population was performed in the four districts of the department of Junín, between altitudes of 3800 m to 4200 m. The heavy metals concentrations in soils with native potato cultivation followed the following decreasing order of Fe > Zn > Pb > As > Cd, with values below national standards. The heavy metals content in native potatoes was below the limits recommended by international standards with the exception of Pb. The bioconcentration factor (BCF) for the two native potato varieties in decreasing order was Zn > Cd > Pb > As > Fe, all less than 0.5. The estimated daily intake of metals (EDIM) in adults and children through the consumption of native potatoes was higher for Fe and Zn. The threshold carcinogenic risk values (TCR) for As exceeded the safety limits 1 × 10 −4. It is concluded that the residents in the four high Andean localities would be exposed to carcinogenic adverse health effects associated with the intake of native potatoes. It is important to monitor the concentration of As and other heavy metals in the Andean soils and crops in order to implement a soil and crop management program to ensure food quality.

The concentration of Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn and As in the surface water intended for human consumption and other uses in the Mantaro River basin were analysed using multivariate methods. The water samples were collected from seven water bodies in the Junín region in June 2019, in the low discharge period. In each body of water, a sector with six sampling sites was established. The Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn and As contents were determined by the flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry method. The correlation analysis revealed positive and significant correlations (P < 0.05) for the Zn/Pb, Pb/Fe and Zn/Fe pairs with a good association, higher than 0.80 and for the Pb/Cu, Fe/Cu, As/Pb and As/Zn pairs a weak degree of association (P < 0.05). The analysis of the main components showed three components with their own values > 1. The hierarchical grouping analysis classified the evaluated water bodies into three groups according to the concentration of the Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn and As. The high concentrations of heavy metals and arsenic recorded in the CIMIRM and MERIS irrigation channels reveal that the Mantaro River continues to be a sink for mine wastewater discharges and runoff from mining liabilities at the headwaters of the Mantaro basin. It is, therefore, necessary to implement urgent management policies to control and reduce the levels of contamination by potentially toxic metals and metalloids in the Mantaro River.

The contamination of water, air and soil with potentially toxic elements (PTE) compromises the supply of contaminant free food. Vegetables grown in contaminated soils can absorb and accumulate PTE at concentrations that are toxic to human health. In this context, the human risk associated with the intake of artichokes grown in soils irrigated with PTE contaminated water was assessed. 120 samples of surface soil and artichoke heads were collected and the concentrations of Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn and As were determined. The results showed that the concentrations of Cu, Fe and Zn in soil did not exceed the standards of the Ministry of Environment of Peru, but they did exceed those of Pb (125.45 mg kg −1 ) and As (28.70 mg kg −1 ). The decreasing order of mean PTE concentration in artichoke heads was Fe > Zn > Cu > Pb > As, exceeding the permissible levels of FAO/WHO CODEX Alimentarius. However, the concentrations of As comply with the maximum limits of inorganic contaminants in vegetables (0.3 mg kg −1 ) established in the MERCOSUR regulations. The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk of Pb and As indicated that the ingestion of artichoke heads does not represent a health risk.