Employment, career advancement, and financial independence are highly valued in the United States. As expectations, they are often instilled at a young age and incentivized throughout adulthood. Despite their importance, employment and economic sufficiency continue to be out of reach for most people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). Over the last quarter century, extensive research and effort has been committed to understanding and improving these phenomena. This paper summarizes this employment research base by reviewing the literature on the effectiveness of the current employment support system, employment-specific interventions, and the economics and cost benefits of employment for people with IDD. Recommendations and directions for future research are also presented.

There are many paths which one may take when entering the world of work. The conceptual model put forth here, Pathways to Employment, is one which looks at the common avenues available to achieving greater economic self-sufficiency through employment for adults with developmental disabilities. The model acknowledges individual differences among those who enter the employment decision-making process while stressing the concept of the availability of simultaneous choices or paths for the individual. Employment is thus presented as a dynamic rather than a static process. The model has broad application and looks to employment or supported employment as a means to an end and not an end in and of itself. The challenge is to access the real work environment and to provide enough support that the individual will realize an increased level of economic self-sufficiency.

Although there is a growing consensus that including natural supports in the employment process is an important goal, there is considerable debate about the definition and appropriate role of these supports. This manuscript clarifies and extends current definitions of natural supports and proposes a working model to guide future research and practice. Primary emphasis is placed on natural supports as a desired outcome of successful employment rather than a distinct model for support and as a contributing factor to higher level outcomes such as quality of life. From both a researcher's and a practitioner's perspective there is a need to shift emphasis from competing models of employment support to developing a better understanding of the relationship between specific job coach interventions and the desired outcome of effective natural support.DESCRIPTORS: competitive employment, employment, instructional strategies, job placement, research design, vocational training An important recent development in employment services for individuals with severe disabilities has

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