Symmetry has been a prominent feature of multilevel electoral competition in postwar Germany. However, regional parameters affecting the degree of symmetry have changed significantly over time. Looking at voting behaviour, coalition formation, party systems and party organizations, we distinguish three different phases: (a) an initial period (late 1940s to early 1960s) with a rather complex and uneven party system configuration; (b) the classical period (early 1960s to late 1980s) with a very high degree of symmetry; (c) the postunification period (since 1990) with a tendency towards a stronger regionalization of party competition. The article argues that these changes can be explained by the interaction of three different factors. First, a structural explanation focuses on the institutional framework of German `cooperative federalism', which was, at least until the 1990s, characterized by a constant trend towards more interdependence between the different political levels. Second, a socio-cultural explanation emphasizes the (varying) degree of homogeneity among the German electorate. Third, an actor-centred explanation points to the organizational capacities of political parties. German parties have developed a high degree of vertical integration and are (were) thus able to resolve disputes between the different levels of the political system or between different regions within their own ranks. In the 1990s, German parties found it more difficult to maintain their levels of vertical integration. Since reunification, territorial politics has therefore played a much greater role in multi-level electoral competition in Germany.

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