Pharmacokinetics of liquiritigenin, a candidate for inflammatory liver disease, and its two glucuronide conjugates, M1 and M2, were evaluated in rats. The hepatic and gastrointestinal first-pass effects of liquiritigenin were also evaluated in rats. After oral administration of liquiritigenin at a dose of 20 mg kg(-1), 1.07% of the dose was not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract up to 24 h, and the F-value was only 6.68%. In vitro metabolism of liquiritigenin in S9 fractions of rat tissues showed that the liver and intestine were major tissues responsible for glucuronidation of liquiritigenin. The hepatic and gastrointestinal first-pass effects of liquiritigenin were approximately 3.67% and 92.5% of the oral dose, respectively. Although the hepatic first-pass effect of liquiritigenin after absorption into the portal vein was 57.1%, the value was only 3.67% of the oral dose due to extensive gastrointestinal first-pass effect in rats. Therefore, the low F-value of liquiritigenin in rats was primarily attributable to an extensive gastrointestinal first-pass effect although liquiritigenin was well absorbed. Compared with rats, the higher F-value of liquiritigenin could be expected in humans.

This study aimed to determine the degree of alarm fatigue and mental workload of ICU nurses, and to clarify the relationship between these two variables. A cross-sectional, descriptive research design was used. Data were collected from 90 nurses working in four ICUs in Seoul, Republic of Korea, using a questionnaire determining their degree of alarm fatigue and mental workload. Data were collected from 6 March to 26 April 2021 and were analyzed using a t-test, ANOVA, and Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The average alarm-fatigue score was 28.59 out of 44. The item with the highest score was “I often hear a certain amount of noise in the ward”, with a score of 3.59 out of 4. The average of the mental workload scores was 75.21 out of 100. The highest mental workload item was effort, which scored 78.72 out of 100. No significant correlation was found between alarm fatigue and mental workload. Although nurses were consistently exposed to alarm fatigue, this was not directly related to their mental workloads, perhaps owing to their professional consciousness as they strived to accomplish tasks despite alarm fatigue. However, since alarm fatigue can affect efficiency, investigations to reduce it and develop appropriate guidelines are necessary. This study was not registered.

The time-dependent (2-h, 24-h, and 96-h) effects of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (ECLPS) on the intravenous (100 mg kg(-1)) and oral (100 mg kg(-1)) metformin pharmacokinetics were evaluated in rats. After the intravenous administration of metformin to 24-h and 96-h ECLPS rats, the total area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time zero to time infinity (AUCs) and time-averaged non-renal clearances (CL(NR)s) of metformin were significantly greater and slower, respectively, than the controls. However, after the oral administration of metformin, the AUCs of metformin were comparable among four groups of rats. The greater (slower) intravenous AUCs (CL(NR)s) of metformin in 24-h and 96-h ECLPS rats were due to the slower hepatic intrinsic clearance (CL(int)) because of a decrease in the protein expression of hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C11 and/or CYP3A subfamily than controls. The comparable oral AUCs among four groups of rats were mainly due to the comparable gastrointestinal metabolism (CL(int)).