Internal transcribed spacer (ITS nuclear rDNA) data have been obtained from 190 terrestrial orchid species, encompassing all genera and the great majority of the widely recognized species of Orchidinae, a heterogeneous selection of species of Habenariinae, and single species of Satyriinae and Disinae (the latter serving as outgroup). The resulting parsimony‐based phylogeny reveals 12 well‐resolved clades within the Orchidinae, based on Anacamptis s.l., Serapias, Ophrys, Steveniella–Himantoglossum s.l. (including ‘Comperia’ and ‘Barlia’, most species being 2n = 36), Neotinea s.l., Traunsteinera–Chamorchis, Orchis s.s., Pseudorchis–Amerorchis–Galearis–Neolindleya–Platanthera s.l. (most 2n = 42), Dactylorhiza s.l., Gymnadenia s.l. (most 2n = 40, 80), Ponerorchis s.l.–Hemipilia s.l.–Amitostigma–Neottianthe, and Brachycorythis (most 2n = 42). Relationships are less clearly resolved among these 12 clades, as are those within Habenariinae; the subtribe appears either weakly supported as monophyletic or as paraphyletic under maximum parsimony, and the species‐rich genus Habenaria is clearly highly polyphyletic. The triphyly of Orchis as previously delimited is confirmed, and the improved sampling allows further generic transfers to Anacamptis s.l. and Neotinea s.l. In addition, justifications are given for: (1) establishing Steveniella as the basally divergent member of an appreciably expanded Himantoglossum that incorporates the former genera ‘Barlia’ and ‘Comperia’, (2) reuniting ‘Piperia’ with a broadly defined Platanthera as section Piperia, necessitating ten new combinations, (3) broadening Ponerorchis to include Chusua, and Hemipilia to include single ‘orphan’ species of Ponerorchis and Habenaria, and (4) recognizing ‘Gymnadenia’camtschatica as the monotypic Neolindleya camtschatica within the Pseudorchis∼Platanthera clade. Few further generic transfers are likely in Orchidinae s.s., but they are anticipated among habenariid genera, on acquisition of additional morphological and molecular evidence; one probable outcome is expansion of Herminium. Species‐level relationships are also satisfactorily resolved within most of the major clades of Orchidinae, with the notable exceptions of Serapias, the derived sections of Ophrys, Himantoglossum s.s., some sections within Dactylorhiza, the former genus ‘Nigritella’ (now tentatively placed within Gymnadenia s.l.), Hemipilia s.l., and possibly Ponerorchis s.s. Relationships among the 12 major clades broadly accord with bona fide records of intergeneric hybridization. Current evidence supports the recently recognized 2n = 36 clade; it also indicates a 2n = 40 clade that is further diagnosed by digitate root‐tubers, and is derived relative to the recently recognized clade of exclusively Asian genera (Ponerorchis s.l.–Hemipilia s.l.–Amitostigma–Neottianthe). This in turn appears derived relative to the Afro‐Asiatic Brachycorythis group; together, these two clades identify the plesiomorphic chromosome number as 2n = 42. If the African genus Stenogolottis is correctly placed as b...

This study examines the relationship between environmental attitudes as measured by the new environmental paradigm (NEP) and nature-based tourism (NBT) motivations based on data gathered from a national forest park in China. The results indicate that tourists' environmental attitudes are heterogeneous across all four tourism motivations. Specifically, those who are more supportive of limits to growth and who are more concerned about ecocrisis tend to have a higher desire to be close to nature, to learn about nature, and to escape from routine and issues associated with cities. In addition, those whose motivations are oriented to develop skills and abilities or seek to experience new things, environments, and social contact tend to be more supportive of the notion of human over nature. Thus, it can be concluded that environmental attitudes and NBT motivations are closely and positively related. Research limits, theoretical and practical implications, and future research needs of the study are discussed.

The establishment of agricultural economies based upon domestic animals began independently in many parts of the world and led to both increases in human population size and the migration of people carrying domestic plants and animals. The precise circumstances of the earliest phases of these events remain mysterious given their antiquity and the fact that subsequent waves of migrants have often replaced the first. Through the use of more than 1,500 modern (including 151 previously uncharacterized specimens) and 18 ancient (representing six East Asian archeological sites) pig (Sus scrofa) DNA sequences sampled across East Asia, we provide evidence for the long-term genetic continuity between modern and ancient Chinese domestic pigs. Although the Chinese case for independent pig domestication is supported by both genetic and archaeological evidence, we discuss five additional (and possibly) independent domestications of indigenous wild boar populations: one in India, three in peninsular Southeast Asia, and one off the coast of Taiwan. Collectively, we refer to these instances as "cryptic domestication," given the current lack of corroborating archaeological evidence. In addition, we demonstrate the existence of numerous populations of genetically distinct and widespread wild boar populations that have not contributed maternal genetic material to modern domestic stocks. The overall findings provide the most complete picture yet of pig evolution and domestication in East Asia, and generate testable hypotheses regarding the development and spread of early farmers in the Far East.Asian colonization | mtDNA | phylogeography