The rapid growth, demand, and production of batteries to meet various emerging applications, such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems, will result in waste and disposal problems in the next few years as these batteries reach end-of-life. Battery reuse and recycling are becoming urgent worldwide priorities to protect the environment and address the increasing need for critical metals. As a review article, this paper reveals the current global battery market and global battery waste status from which the main battery chemistry types and their management, including reuse and recycling status, are discussed. This review then presents details of the challenges, opportunities, and arguments on battery second-life and recycling. The recent research and industrial activities in the battery reuse domain are summarized to provide a landscape picture and valuable insight into battery reuse and recycling for industries, scientific research, and waste management.

Micro- to nano-sized GaOOH nanorods and particles were prepared under varying hydrothermal conditions without any surfactant and additive using gallium nitrate and sodium hydroxide as starting materials. The combination of X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), small area electron diffraction (SAED), energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), thermogravimetric analysis (TG), and FT-IR was employed to characterize the resulting gallium oxide hydroxide nanorods. Detailed results and the possible growth mechanism are presented.

Effect of growth temperature on morphology, structure and luminescence of Eu-doped GaN thin films

Raman spectroscopy complemented by infrared spectroscopy was used to characterise both gallium oxyhydroxide (a-GaO(OH)) and gallium oxide (b-Ga 2 O 3 ) nanorods synthesised with and without the surfactants using a soft chemical methodology at low temperatures. Nano-to micro-sized gallium oxyhydroxide and gallium oxide materials were characterised and analysed by both X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. Rod-like GaO(OH) crystals with average length of ∼2.5 µm and width of 1.5 µm were obtained. Upon thermally treating gallium oxyhydroxide GaO(OH) to 900°C, b-Ga 2 O 3 was synthesised retaining the initial GaO(OH) morphology. Raman spectroscopy has been used to study the structure of nanorods of GaO(OH) and Ga 2 O 3 crystals. Raman spectroscopy shows bands characteristic of GaO(OH) at 950 and ∼1000 cm−1 attributed to Ga-OH deformation modes. Bands at 261, 275, 433 and 522 cm −1 are assigned to vibrational modes involving Ga-OH units. Bands observed at 320, 346, 418 and 472 cm −1 are assigned to the deformation modes of Ga 2 O 6 octahedra. Two sharp infrared bands at 2948 and 2916 cm −1 are attributed to the GaO(OH) symmetric stretching vibrations. Raman spectroscopy of Ga 2 O 3 provides bands at 630, 656 and 767 cm −1 which are assigned to the bending and stretching of GaO 4 units. Raman bands at 417 and 475 cm −1 are attributed to the symmetric stretching modes of GaO 2 units. The Raman bands at 319 and 347 cm −1 are assigned to the bending modes of GaO 2 units.

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