Cyclooxygenase-2 is frequently upregulated in epithelial tumors and contributes to poor outcomes in multiple malignancies. The COX-2 product prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) promotes tumor growth and metastasis by acting on a family of four G protein-coupled receptors (EP1–4). Using a novel small molecule EP4 antagonist (RQ-15986) and a syngeneic murine model of metastatic breast cancer, we determined the effect of EP4 blockade on innate immunity and tumor biology. Natural killer (NK)-cell functions are markedly depressed in mice bearing murine mammary tumor 66.1 or 410.4 cells owing to the actions of PGE2 on NK cell EP4 receptors. The EP4 agonist PGE1-OH inhibits NK functions in vitro, and this negative regulation is blocked by RQ-15986. Likewise, the treatment of tumor-bearing mice with RQ-15986 completely protected NK cells from the immunosuppressive effects of the tumor microenvironment in vivo. RQ-15986 also has direct effects on EP4 expressed by tumor cells, inhibiting the PGE2-mediated activation of adenylate cyclase and blocking PGE2-induced tumor cell migration. The pretreatment of tumor cells with a non-cytotoxic concentration of RQ-15986 inhibited lung colonization, a beneficial effect that was lost in mice depleted of NK cells. The oral administration of RQ-15986 inhibited the growth of tumor cells implanted into mammary glands and their spontaneous metastatic colonization to the lungs, resulting in improved survival. Our findings reveal that EP4 antagonism prevents tumor-mediated NK-cell immunosuppression and demonstrates the anti-metastatic activity of a novel EP4 antagonist. These observations support the investigation of EP4 antagonists in clinical trials.

The cyclooxygenase pathway is strongly implicated in breast cancer progression but the role of this pathway in the biology of breast cancer stem/progenitor cells has not been defined. Recent attention has focused on targeting the cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) pathway downstream of the COX-2 enzyme by blocking the activities of individual prostaglandin E (EP) receptors. Prostaglandin E receptor 4 (EP4) is widely expressed in primary invasive ductal carcinomas of the breast and antagonizing this receptor with small molecule inhibitors or shRNA directed to EP4 inhibits metastatic potential in both syngeneic and xenograft models. Breast cancer stem/progenitor cells are defined as a subpopulation of cells that drive tumor growth, metastasis, treatment resistance, and relapse. Mammosphere-forming breast cancer cells of human (MDA-MB-231, SKBR3) or murine (66.1, 410.4) origin of basal-type, Her-2 phenotype and/or with heightened metastatic capacity upregulate expression of both EP4 and COX-2 and are more tumorigenic compared to the bulk population. In contrast, luminal-type or non-metastatic counterparts (MCF7, 410, 67) do not increase COX-2 and EP4 expression in mammosphere culture. Treatment of mammosphere-forming cells with EP4 inhibitors (RQ-15986, AH23848, Frondoside A) or EP4 gene silencing, but not with a COX inhibitor (Indomethacin) reduces both mammosphere-forming capacity and the expression of phenotypic markers (CD44hi/CD24low, aldehyde dehydrogenase) of breast cancer stem cells. Finally, an orally delivered EP4 antagonist (RQ-08) reduces the tumor-initiating capacity and markedly inhibits both the size of tumors arising from transplantation of mammosphere-forming cells and phenotypic markers of stem cells in vivo. These studies support the continued investigation of EP4 as a potential therapeutic target and provide new insight regarding the role of EP4 in supporting a breast cancer stem cell/tumor-initiating phenotype.

Tegoprazan [()-4-((5,7-difluorochroman-4-yl)oxy)-,,2-trimethyl-1-benzo[d]imidazole-6-carboxamide], a potassium-competitive acid blocker (P-CAB), is a novel potent and highly selective inhibitor of gastric H/K-ATPase. Tegoprazan inhibited porcine, canine, and human H/K-ATPases in vitro with IC values ranging from 0.29 to 0.52 M, while that for canine kidney Na/K-ATPase was more than 100 M. A kinetic analysis revealed that tegoprazan inhibited H/K-ATPase in a potassium-competitive manner and the binding was reversible. Oral single administrations of tegoprazan ranging from 0.3 to 30 mg/kg in dogs were well absorbed into the blood stream and distributed in gastric tissue/fluid higher than in plasma. Tegoprazan potently inhibited histamine-induced gastric acid secretion in dogs, and a complete inhibition was observed at 1.0 mg/kg starting from 1 hour after administration. Moreover, an oral administration of tegoprazan at 1 and 3 mg/kg reversed the pentagastrin-induced acidified gastric pH to the neutral range. Interestingly, 3 mg/kg tegoprazan immediately evoked a gastric phase III contraction of the migrating motor complex in pentagastrin-treated dogs and similar effects was observed with the other P-CAB, vonoprazan. Tegoprazan is the novel P-CAB that may provide a new option for the therapy of gastric acid-related and motility-impaired diseases.

A highly expressed prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2) in tumor tissues suppresses antitumor immunity in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and causes tumor immune evasion leading to disease progression. In animal studies, selective inhibition of the prostaglandin E receptor 4 (EP4), one of four PGE 2 receptors, suppresses tumor growth, restoring the tumor immune response toward an antitumorigenic condition. This review summarizes PGE 2 /EP4 signal inhibition in relation to the cancer-immunity cycle (C-IC), which describes fundamental tumor-immune interactions in cancer immunotherapy. PGE 2 is suggested to slow down C-IC by inhibiting natural killer cell functions, suppressing the supply of conventional dendritic cell precursors to the TME. This is critical for the tumor-associated antigen priming of CD8 + T cells and their translocation to the tumor tissue from the tumor-draining lymph node. Furthermore, PGE 2 activates several key immune-suppressive cells present in tumors and counteracts tumoricidal properties of the effector CD8 + T cells. These effects of PGE 2 drive the tumors to non-T-cell-inflamed tumors and cause refractory conditions to cancer immunotherapies, e.g., immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) treatment. EP4 antagonist therapy is suggested to inhibit the immune-suppressive and tumorigenic roles of PGE 2 in tumors, and it may sensitize the therapeutic effects of ICIs in patients with non-inflamed and C-IC-deficient tumors. This review provides insight into the mechanism of action of EP4 antagonists in cancer immunotherapy and suggests a C-IC modulating opportunity for EP4 antagonist therapy in combination with ICIs and/or other cancer therapies.

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