In dealing with the spatial and temporal variability of prey species, predators may be able to forage optimally if they have flexible and rapid behavioral plasticity rather than predetermined responses. For predators that learn to focus attention on the cryptic prey type most frequently encountered during recent searching (termed a ''search image''), rare prey types may be overlooked because of a focus on more common prey. Search imaging reflects biased searching for one of a number of available prey types, and has been studied widely in birds and mammals. Here we discuss the significant implications of this phenomenon for insect predator-prey systems, particularly with respect to parasitic wasps searching for host species using learned olfactory cues. We (1) review studies about perceptual development through individual ontogeny, (2) define the term ''search image'' and discuss the cognitive mechanisms involved in search-image formation, (3) discuss the role of search images and frequencydependent predation as a proximate mechanism in the maintenance of prey diversity, (4) examine data on hostparasitoid olfactory search imaging, and (5) conclude by identifying important research areas for future studies in the field of olfactory search images.

BackgroundAirway epithelial barrier function is maintained by the formation of tight junctions (TJs) and adherens junctions (AJs). Inhalation of cigarette smoke causes airway epithelial barrier dysfunction and may contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic lung diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). We assessed the effects of cigarette smoke on barrier function and expression of multiple TJ and AJ proteins in the bronchial epithelium. We also examined whether treatment with glucocorticosteroids (GCSs), long-acting β2-agonists (LABAs), and human cathelicidin LL-37 can protect against cigarette smoke extract (CSE)-induced barrier dysfunction.MethodsCalu-3 cells cultured at the air-liquid interface were pretreated with or without GCSs, LABAs, GCSs plus LABAs, or LL-37, and subsequently exposed to CSE. Barrier function was assessed by transepithelial electronic resistance (TEER) measurements. Gene and protein expression levels of TJ and AJ proteins were analyzed by quantitative PCR and western blotting, respectively. Immunofluorescence staining of TJ and AJ proteins was performed.ResultsCSE decreased TEER and increased permeability in a concentration-dependent manner. CSE suppressed gene expression of claudin-1, claudin-3, claudin-4, claudin-7, claudin-15, occludin, E-cadherin, junctional adhesion molecule-A (JAM-A) and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) within 12 h post-CSE exposure, while suppressed protein expression levels of occludin at 12 h. CSE-treated cells exhibited discontinuous or attenuated immunostaining for claudin-1, claudin-3, claudin-4, occludin, ZO-1, and E-cadherin compared with untreated cells. GCS treatment partially restored CSE-induced TEER reduction, while LABA treatment had no effect. GCS and LABA combination treatment had no additive effect on CSE-induced TEER reduction and gene suppression of TJ and AJ proteins. Human cathelicidin LL-37 counteracted CSE-induced TEER reduction and prevented disruption of occludin and ZO-1. LL-37 also attenuated CSE-induced decreases in gene and protein expression levels of occludin.ConclusionsCSE caused airway epithelial barrier dysfunction and simultaneously downregulated multiple TJ and AJ proteins. GCS and LABA combination treatment had no additive effect on CSE-induced TEER reduction. LL-37 counteracted CSE-induced TEER reduction and prevented disruption of occludin and ZO-1. Use of LL-37 to counteract airway epithelial barrier dysfunction may have significant benefits for respiratory diseases such as asthma and COPD.

We describe a novel role for CD271 in the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), including deciduous dental pulp stem cells (DDPSCs) and murine multipotent MSCs (C3H10T1/2 cells). The CD271(+) subpopulation of deciduous dental pulp cells (CD271(+)/DDPSCs) and the forced expression of CD271 in C3H10T1/2 (10T271) were analyzed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. CD271 expression was detected in DDPSCs that expressed both CD44 and CD90, simultaneously, and the clonogenic capacity of the CD271(+)/DDPSCs was higher than that of the CD271(-)/DDPSCs that expressed both CD44 and CD90. Further, the differentiation of CD271(+)/DDPSCs into osteoblasts and adipocytes was inhibited although CD271(-)/DDPSCs were capable of differentiating into osteoblasts and adipocytes. CD271 was overexpressed in C3H10T1/2 cells, which have the potential to differentiate into osteoblasts, adipocytes, chondrocytes, and myocytes. CD271 inhibited the differentiation of C3H10T1/2 cells into any of these lineages. These results indicate a role for CD271 in inhibiting the differentiation of MSCs.

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One of the most important anthropic missions is preventing the global spread of infectious diseases. Vaccination is the only available preventive treatment for infectious diseases, but the availability of vaccines in developing countries is not adequate. We report a simple, easy-to-use, noninvasive hydrogel patch transcutaneous vaccination system. Antigen (Ag)-specific IgG production was induced by applying an Ag-immersed patch to non-pretreated mouse auricle or hairless rat back skin. Immunofluorescence histochemical analysis revealed that Langerhans cells resident in the epidermal layer captured the antigenic proteins delivered by the hydrogel patch, which promoted the penetration of antigenic proteins through the stratum corneum, and that Ag-capturing Langerhans cells migrated into draining lymph nodes. Humoral immunity elicited by our transcutaneous vaccination system demonstrated neutralizing activity in both adenoviral infection and passive-challenge tetanus toxin experiments. The use of this hydrogel patch transcutaneous vaccination system will facilitate the global distribution of effective and convenient vaccines.