Neural information processing depends on precisely timed, Ca-activated synaptic vesicle exocytosis from release sites within active zones (AZs), but molecular details are unknown. Here, we identify that the (M)Unc13-family member Unc13A generates release sites and show the physiological relevance of their restrictive AZ targeting. Super-resolution and intravital imaging of Drosophila neuromuscular junctions revealed that (unlike the other release factors Unc18 and Syntaxin-1A) Unc13A was stably and precisely positioned at AZs. Local Unc13A levels predicted single AZ activity. Different Unc13A portions selectively affected release site number, position, and functionality. An N-terminal fragment stably localized to AZs, displaced endogenous Unc13A, and reduced the number of release sites, while a C-terminal fragment generated excessive sites at atypical locations, resulting in reduced and delayed evoked transmission that displayed excessive facilitation. Thus, release site generation by the Unc13A C terminus and their specific AZ localization via the N terminus ensure efficient transmission and prevent ectopic, temporally imprecise release.

The functional requirement of adapter protein 2 (AP2) complex in synaptic membrane retrieval by clathrin-mediated endocytosis is not fully understood. Here we isolated and functionally characterized a mutation that dramatically altered synaptic development. Based on the aberrant neuromuscular junction (NMJ) synapse, we named this mutation angur (a Hindi word meaning "grapes"). Loss-of-function alleles of angur show more than twofold overgrowth in bouton numbers and a dramatic decrease in bouton size. We mapped the angur mutation to s 2 -adaptin, the smallest subunit of the AP2 complex. Reducing the neuronal level of any of the subunits of the AP2 complex or disrupting AP2 complex assembly in neurons phenocopied the s 2 -adaptin mutation. Genetic perturbation of s 2 -adaptin in neurons leads to a reversible temperature-sensitive paralysis at 38°. Electrophysiological analysis of the mutants revealed reduced evoked junction potentials and quantal content. Interestingly, high-frequency nerve stimulation caused prolonged synaptic fatigue at the NMJs. The synaptic levels of subunits of the AP2 complex and clathrin, but not other endocytic proteins, were reduced in the mutants. Moreover, bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)/transforming growth factor b (TGFb) signaling was altered in these mutants and was restored by normalizing s 2 -adaptin in neurons. Thus, our data suggest that (1) while s 2 -adaptin facilitates synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling for basal synaptic transmission, its activity is also required for regenerating SVs during highfrequency nerve stimulation, and (2) s 2 -adaptin regulates NMJ morphology by attenuating TGFb signaling. KEYWORDS Drosophila; angur; synapse; physiology; pMAD S YNAPTIC transmission requires fusion of synaptic vesicles (SVs) at the active zones followed by their efficient retrieval and recycling through endocytic mechanisms (Heuser and Reese 1973;Jahn and Sudhof 1994). Retrieval and sorting of membrane lipids and vesicular proteins at the synapse are mediated by a well-orchestrated and coordinated action of several adapter and endocytic proteins (Stimson et al. 2001;Rikhy et al. 2002;Verstreken et al. 2002;Koh et al. 2004;Marie et al. 2004). Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is the primary pathway operative at the synapses for membrane retrieval (Granseth et al. 2006(Granseth et al. , 2007Heerssen et al. 2008;Dittman and Ryan 2009;McMahon and Boucrot 2011;Saheki and De Camilli 2012). Genetic analysis of the components of the CME pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila has revealed that this pathway is required for SV re-formation, and in many cases, blocking CME at synapses results in temperature-sensitive paralysis (Gonzalez-Gaitan and Jackle 1997;Zhang et al. 1998;Stimson et al. 2001;Koh et al. 2004Koh et al. , 2007Sato et al. 2009). Additionally, CME plays a crucial role in regulating synaptic morphology (Rikhy et al. 2002;Koh et al. 2004Koh et al. , 2007Dickman et al. 2006). At Drosophila NMJs, blocking CME results in enhanced bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) si...

The mechanisms underlying synaptic differentiation, which involves neuronal membrane and cytoskeletal remodeling, are not completely understood. We performed a targeted RNAi-mediated screen of Drosophila BAR-domain proteins and identified islet cell autoantigen 69 kDa (ICA69) as one of the key regulators of morphological differentiation of the larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ). We show that Drosophila ICA69 colocalizes with α-Spectrin at the NMJ. The conserved N-BAR domain of ICA69 deforms liposomes in vitro. Fulllength ICA69 and the ICAC but not the N-BAR domain of ICA69 induce filopodia in cultured cells. Consistent with its cytoskeleton regulatory role, ICA69 mutants show reduced α-Spectrin immunoreactivity at the larval NMJ. Manipulating levels of ICA69 or its interactor PICK1 alters the synaptic level of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs). Moreover, reducing PICK1 or Rab2 levels phenocopies ICA69 mutation. Interestingly, Rab2 regulates not only synaptic iGluR but also ICA69 levels. Thus, our data suggest that: (1) ICA69 regulates NMJ organization through a pathway that involves PICK1 and Rab2, and (2) Rab2 functions genetically upstream of ICA69 and regulates NMJ organization and targeting/ retention of iGluRs by regulating ICA69 levels.

Background: Mutations in the human Senataxin (hSETX) gene have been shown to cause two forms of neurodegenerative disorders - a dominant form called amyotrophic lateral sclerosis type 4 (ALS4) and a recessive form called ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 2 (AOA2). SETX is a putative DNA/RNA helicase involved in RNA metabolism. Although several dominant mutations linked with ALS4 have been identified in SETX, their contribution towards ALS4 pathophysiology is still elusive. Method: In order to model ALS4 in Drosophila and to elucidate the morphological, physiological and signalling consequences, we overexpressed the wild-type and pathological forms of hSETX in Drosophila. Results and Conclusions: The pan-neuronal expression of wild-type or mutant forms of hSETX induced morphological plasticity at neuromuscular junction (NMJ) synapses. Surprisingly, we found that while the NMJ synapses were increased in number, the neuronal function was normal. Analysis of signalling pathways revealed that hSETX modulates the Highwire (Hiw; a conserved neuronal E3 ubiquitin ligase)-dependent bone morphogenetic protein/TGFβ pathway. Thus, our study could pave the way for a better understanding of ALS4 progression by SETX through the regulation of neuronal E3 ubiquitin pathways.

Mutations in Senataxin (SETX) gene causes two types of neurological disorders, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS4) and Ataxia with Oculomotor Apraxia type 2 (AOA2). Recent studies in cultured cells suggest that SETX plays a crucial role at the interface of transcription and the DNA damage response. Whether SETX can alter translational of specific RNA is not known. In this study, we report that expressing AOA2-causative truncated form of human SETX in Drosophila neurons alters the development of neuromuscular junction (NMJ) synapses. Interestingly, we found that expressing this truncated form of SETX in Drosophila muscles resulted in an alteration of translational repression of an RNA-binding protein, Embryonic Lethal Abnormal Vision (Elav). Elav is transcribed in all tissues but remains translationally repressed except in neurons. Thus, our data suggest that an altered repression profile of RNA by SETX mutants could be one of the mechanisms underlying ALS4 or AOA2 pathogenesis.