This study derives from the macroscopic analysis of a Late Neolithic population from Hungary. Remains were recovered from a tell settlement at Hódmezővásárhely-Gorzsa from graves within the settlement as well as pits, ditches, houses and as stray finds. One of the most important discoveries from these remains was evidence of tuberculosis. Pathological analysis of the seventy-one individuals revealed numerous cases of infections and non-specific stress indicators on juveniles and adults, metabolic diseases on juveniles, and evidence of trauma and mechanical changes on adults. Several cases showed potential signs of tuberculosis and further analyses were undertaken, including biomolecular studies. The five individuals were all very young adults and included a striking case of Hypertrophic Pulmonary Osteopathy (HPO) with rib changes, one case with resorptive lesions on the vertebrae, two cases with hypervascularisation on the vertebrae and periosteal remodelling on the ribs, and one case with abnormal blood vessel impressions and a possible lesion on the endocranial surface of the skull. The initial macroscopic diagnosis of these five cases was confirmed by lipid biomarker analyses, and three of them were corroborated by DNA analysis. At present, these 7000-year-old individuals are among the oldest palaeopathological and palaeomicrobiological cases of tuberculosis worldwide.

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Symbolic or incomplete trephinations are very common in Hungary in 9th–11thcentury AD skeletal series connected to early Hungarians, although they also occur in the preceding Avar Age (6th–9th c. AD) material. During the compilation of a database of regional cranial modification data, the authors found rare almond‐shaped symbolic trephinations in both periods, while these had formerly only been reported in Early Hungarian series. In this study, the new almond‐shaped lesions are described along with other symbolic trephinations of 14 newly found skulls from the 8th–11thcenturies AD in the Southern Great Plain of Hungary. The authors review the research of the phenomenon. The new findings may strengthen the theory of direct and very close cultural connections of these two ethnic groups, adding a new aspect to the debate over the origin and relationship of Late Avar (late 7th–early 9th c. AD) and Early Hungarian (9th–11th c. AD) populations. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Previous investigations carried out in some parts of the 16th-17th century AD series of Bácsalmás-Oalmás (southern Hungary) have already provided interesting paleopathological cases of tuberculosis (e.g. Molnár & Pálfi 1994). These studies were essentially based on macromorphological analysis, biomolecular methods were used only in a few cases (e.g. Haas et al. 2000). From a macromorphological point of view, former investigations have only considered 'classical' tuberculosis (TB) alterations (advanced-stage lesions in common skeletal locations). However, due to the recent development of diagnostic criteria in the field of the paleopathology of infectious diseases, new approaches have been introduced in the identification of skeletal TB lesions (Pálfi et al. 1999, Maczel 2003). Molecular methods for the detection of mycobacterial aDNA have also been developed considerably in the last few years (e.g. Donoghue 2008, Donoghue 2011). The good state of preservation of the material, the important chronological period of the series and the relative high prevalence of TB reported in preliminary studies encouraged us to carry out a revision of TB-related lesions in the complete Bácsalmás-Oalmás series. A five year international research program--including both macroscopic and biomolecular studies of the series--was recently started. The present paper summarizes the results ofa pilot project conducted to optimize the further systematic paleopathological and paleomicrobial studies. Skeletal material of 205 individuals was chosen forthe macromorphological test-investigation, which was focused both on classical/advanced stage skeletal TB alterations (tuberculous spondylitis, tuberculous arthritis) and atypical/early-stage TB lesions (rib lesions, superficial vertebral changes, endocranial alterations, early-stage spondylodiscitis). In addition, the association of possible stress factors (long bone periostitis, cribra orbitalia, cribra cranii) were also considered. Paleomicrobiological analysis was used to study the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis ancient DNA (aDNA) in morphologically positive and negative cases. A comparative paleomicrobial analysis was carried out on different samples, to test the presence of MTB DNA in different skeletal regions.

The origins of horseback riding remain elusive. Scientific studies show that horses were kept for their milk ~3500 to 3000 BCE, widely accepted as indicating domestication. However, this does not confirm them to be ridden. Equipment used by early riders is rarely preserved, and the reliability of equine dental and mandibular pathologies remains contested. However, horsemanship has two interacting components: the horse as mount and the human as rider. Alterations associated with riding in human skeletons therefore possibly provide the best source of information. Here, we report five Yamnaya individuals well-dated to 3021 to 2501 calibrated BCE from kurgans in Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary, displaying changes in bone morphology and distinct pathologies associated with horseback riding. These are the oldest humans identified as riders so far.