Although a growing body of research in writing has suggested that females outperform males in many aspects of writing, our understanding of gender differences is still limited. The present study aimed to examine the potential sources of gender differences in writing fluency and text quality across Arabic as a first language (L1) and English as a foreign language (FL). 77 undergraduate Omani students produced two argumentative texts, one in Arabic and one in English. Their English proficiency was assessed using the Oxford Placement Test (OPT). Their writing was recorded and analysed via keystroke logging. The study found that females outperformed males in terms of writing fluency and text quality. Findings also indicated that females' superiority in writing fluency and text quality is a consequence of their superiority in English proficiency. Furthermore, findings suggested that writing fluency in English is an important explanatory variable that accounted for females' superiority in text quality. Findings are discussed in light of process-oriented writing research and implications for writing research and teaching are suggested.

Current models of the cognitive processes involved in L1 writing treat them as problem-solving processes, and characterize expert / novice differences as a contrast between a knowledge-transforming approach and a knowledge-telling approach. Empirical research informed by these models has typically used this distinction as a characterization of the processes involved but has not explicitly tested what effect these have on the writer’s knowledge. In this chapter, we argue that these models neglect the implicit nature of much of the writer’s knowledge, and present an alternative dual-process model of writing, which is designed to take this into account. We then describe recent studies in L1 that support the main claims of the dual-process model, call into question some of the assumptions of problem-solving models and suggest that an alternative rough-drafting strategy may help overcome the conflict between text quality and the development of the writer’s understanding. We conclude by discussing the implications for research into L2 writing processes and drafting strategies.

With the growing importance of the development of graduate attributes (GAs) in higher education, higher education institutions (HEIs) are emphasizing which GAs their graduates attain as part of their mission, vision, and core values, and are required to describe and document how their programs contribute to the development and promotion of those attributes. Qualitative data were collected from 12 quality audit reports from the Oman Authority for Academic Accreditation and Quality Assurance of Education (OAAAQA). This paper identifies the OAAAQA’s key areas of interest and their importance in ensuring quality in college-preparedness programs, as well as making recommendations for future audits. The paper seeks to: (1) highlight the most salient issues that have been raised in their reports regarding GAs and (2) make some suggestions so that HEIs in Oman can establish and implement GAs more effectively to meet both the OAAAQA’s expectations and good international practices. Following a data-driven systematic qualitative content analysis (QCA) of the QA reports, four main categories emerged regarding the GAs. Student learning objectives should be aligned with GA development, while stakeholders’ awareness of these attributes should be raised. Additionally, there is a need for an appropriate evaluation mechanism for GAs to be conducted in a systematic and timely manner. Moreover, GAs should be explicitly assessed and benchmarked based on the feedback obtained from relevant stakeholders. Finally, both internal and external stakeholders should be involved in the GA development and review process.

This study seeks to contribute to the incipient pool of research on graduate attributes (GAs) by reporting on a study of the GAs of Omani English language teacher (ELT) education programs and the role being played in this area by the Oman Authority for Academic Accreditation and Quality Assurance of Education (OAAAQA), formerly known as Oman Academic Accreditation Authority (OAAA). The study was qualitative and examined stakeholders’ perspectives and aspirations concerning the graduate attributes used in English language teacher education programs in Oman during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The data for the study was generated by (1) reviewing the pertinent literature, including OAAA’s documents and reports, and (2) interviewing online seven experts and practitioners from ELT programs in Oman. The findings reveal that the participants have diverse views of the GAs. Additionally, higher education institutions (or HEIs) encountered several common challenges with the mapping, actualizing, teaching, and assessing of GAs. Moreover, the existing GAs still need to be reviewed to fit the dynamic requirements of the labor market. The findings of the study have the potential to guide and support English teacher education providers in Oman in developing, reviewing, aligning, and mapping their GAs more effectively and impactfully.

Drawing upon cognitive writing process theory and research, this study investigates the influence of language of writing, foreign language (FL) proficiency and gender on the revision processes of 77 undergraduate students studying at an English-medium college in Oman. Their first language (L1) was Arabic and their FL was English. The participants produced two argumentative authentic texts, one in L1 and one in FL. Their proficiency in English was assessed using the Oxford Placement Test (OPT). Participants’ revisions were recorded and analysed, according to the measures amount, location and type, via keystroke logging. The results showed that the vast majority of revisions in both languages were immediate, i.e. at the point of inscription, and focused on language rather than content. In addition, there was consistent evidence that participants made more revisions in the FL than they did in L1. For ‘total amount of revision’ and ‘immediate revisions’, there was a consistent interaction between gender and FL proficiency. The pattern of the interaction indicated two conflicting tendencies: (a) female participants appeared in general to be more motivated to make revisions in both languages than males, and (b) the less proficient they were in FL the more revisions they made. By contrast, the number of revisions made by the male participants did not depend on their FL proficiency. For ‘distant’, i.e. already written text, and ‘end’, i.e. after producing the first draft, revisions the amount of revision depended solely on the language of writing and gender. Furthermore, the results revealed that when writing in the FL, students with greater FL proficiency attended to content revision more than language revision. Findings are discussed in light of process-oriented writing research and implications for writing research and teaching are suggested.