“…For the one-class case, the popular learning models include neural networks and support vector machines (SVMs), whereas for the multi-class case, many established algorithms can be utilized (Sun et al 2011). Boosting is a common method of the algorithm level approach (Wagner et al 2016;Carbery et al 2018) The role of cost-sensitive learning is to minimise a cost function to learn from incorrectly classified data. Such learning approach is able to consolidate the context to compensate for imbalanced data.…”