“…Various classes of electrochemical sensors exist and are categorized based on their electrical magnitude of detection: potentiometric measures changes in the ion-selective membrane potential (mV), conductometric measures changes in the conductance (G, Ω −1 ), impedimetric measures changes in the impedance (Z) over a range of frequencies (Hz), and voltammetric measures the change in current (pA) that occurs as a result of the initial electrochemical reaction caused by an applied voltage (mV). Various types of electrochemical sensors have been used to detect chemical and biological compounds, such as heavy metal ions [ 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 ], nitrite [ 92 ], pH [ 93 , 94 ], dissolved oxygen (DO) [ 95 , 96 ], phosphate [ 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 ], and free chlorine (or monochloramine) [ 94 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 ]; the technology used ranges from microelectrodes to screen-printed electrodes and can be applied to natural and engineered water systems and environmental samples (e.g., biofilms, metals, and plants). Voltammetric and potentiometric sensors are the most common types of electrochemical sensors used for PFAS detection.…”