“…Heavy metal contamination not only raises sustainable concerns but also causes threats to human health and plants (Kumari et al, 2016;Jiang et al, 2019;Rahman et al, 2020;Chen et al, 2021a;Tan et al, 2022). In the past few decades, remediation methods including replacement, soil flushing, electrokinetic remediation, chemical precipitation, ion exchange, and phytoremediation were developed (Mena et al, 2016;Kumari et al, 2017;Kumari et al, 2018;Chen and Achal, 2019;Duarte-Nass et al, 2020;Ahenkorah et al, 2021;Hu L. et al, 2021;Jiang et al, 2021). However, they are usually time-consuming and may cause secondary pollution (Achal et al, 2012;Nancharaiah et al, 2016;Kappaun et al, 2018;Xue et al, 2022;Yan et al, 2021;Duan et al, 2021a;Cheng et al, 2021;Duan et al, 2021b).…”