Breakfast: a review of associations with measures of dietary intake, physiology and biochemistry

Abstract

The present paper reviews the literature on breakfast to consider reported associations between breakfast and nutritional, physiological and biochemical variables. The contribution of breakfast to achieving nutrition targets for fat, carbohydrate and dietary fibre intakes is also examined as are the potential effects of fortified breakfast cereals on intakes of micronutrients and nutritional status. Breakfast consumption, particularly if the meal includes a breakfast cereal, is associated with lower intakes of fat and higher intakes of carbohydrate, dietary fibre and certain micronutrients. These findings may be relevant to population groups which could be at risk from low intakes of certain micronutrients, but further clarification of benefit is needed from studies of nutritional status. Associations between breakfast consumption and lower cholesterol levels have been reported, while lower body weights have been seen amongst breakfast eaters. It is concluded that breakfast consumption is a marker for an appropriate dietary pattern in terms of both macro-and micronutrients, particularly if breakfast cereals are included in the meal. Breakfast: Micronutrients: Dietary fatMuch interest has focused on the role of breakfast in the diet, probably due to anecdotal evidence of its effects on nutrition and physiology. The result has been a plethora of studies aimed at making an objective assessment of such claims. The present paper examines studies reporting associations between breakfast and a number of important health-related issues: dietary intake, nutritional status, serum lipids, appetite and body weight. The case of breakfast cereals, which appear to be the most commonly-eaten food at breakfast, will be highlighted where it has been reported separately in the literature. The role of breakfast in the diet will be discussed in the context of dietary guidelines to reduce percentage energy from fat, increase carbohydrate and fibre intakes and ensure appropriate intakes of vitamins and minerals. BREAKFAST CONSUMPTIONReports on breakfast consumption indicate that children under 10 years old and adults over 65 years eat breakfast on a more regular basis than any other age group. Breakfast omission is most frequent in young adults and children aged between 13 and 16 years, 7 % of whom have nothing to eat before attending school (Gardner Merchant, 1996). Curry & Todd (1992) reported that only 62 % of 11-15-year-olds took breakfast every day and that 20 %

Does consuming breakfast influence activity levels? An experiment into the effect of breakfast consumption on eating habits and energy expenditure

“…However, they have been unable to separate this from any metabolic effect that breakfast consumption may have (19,25,47) . The present study does not refute the suggestion that breakfast may be a marker of a healthy lifestyle since energy expenditure, activity levels and eating habits were primarily found to be independent of breakfast consumption.…”

The effect of breakfast cereal on diet and serum cholesterol: a randomized trial in North Karelia, Finland

“…This can also in¯uence satiety and the eating patterns for the rest of the day . Increased consumption of a regular breakfast with a high carbohydrate intake has usually been considered as a healthy meal pattern (Ruxton & Kirk, 1997).…”

“…The results of recent studies indicated that a simple dietary intervention to increase the consumption of breakfast cereal led to a signi®cant reduction in the energy from fat and an increase in energy from carbohydrates (Gibson & O'Sullivan, 1995;Kirk et al, 1997;Ruxton & Kirk, 1997). It has been suggested, that plasma glucose values play an important role in the action on appetite .…”

Breakfast intake is associated with nutritional status, Mediterranean diet adherence, serum iron and fasting glucose: the CYFamilies study

“…Breakfast intake is considered an essential characteristic of a healthy diet pattern for adults and children, and has been found to correlate with attributes of a healthy lifestyle such as physical activity levels, cardiovascular health indices as well as cognitive and academic performance in youth (1)(2)(3) . With regard to the association of breakfast with diet quality in children and adolescents, it has been shown that those who regularly eat breakfast have a diet of higher overall quality (4,5) , better food choices, regular eating patterns (6)(7)(8) , consistent energy intake (6) , and nutrient and fibre intakes that are more likely to meet the recommended values (2,9) .…”