OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationships between eating frequency (EF) and body weight status and to determine whether these relationships can be explained in terms of differences in physical activity levels, macronutrient intakes or energy compensation. DESIGN: Cross-sectional design; free-living subjects, 48 men and 47 women (aged 20±55 y, body mass index (BMI) 18±30), recruited in a workplace setting. MEASUREMENTS: Height and weight; skinfold thickness (four sites); EF, energy and macronutrient intakes (food diary, unweighed, recorded for seven consecutive days); physical activity (7 d activity diary and heart rate monitoring over 48 h period). RESULTS: In men there was a signi®cant negative correlation between EF and body weight, and an inverse relationship with body mass index (BMI). EF was positively correlated with % energy from carbohydrate, although not with total energy intake. In women, there was no relationship between EF and body weight status; however, there were signi®cant positive correlations between EF and total energy intake, and between EF and intakes of total carbohydrate and sugars. For both men and women, there were associations between EF and physical activity levels, approaching statistical signi®cance. CONCLUSIONS: In men, the association between increased EF and lower body weight status may have been in¯uenced by increased physical activity levels. As energy intake did not increase with EF, men appear to have compensated by reducing the mean energy consumed per eating episode. Energy compensation did not take place in women, with women who ate most frequently having the highest energy intakes, although this did not lead to higher BMIs. Physical activity, through participation in active leisure pursuits, may have been an important factor in weight control in women. The % contribution of carbohydrate to total energy was positively correlated with EF in both men and women, and further analysis showed that snack foods provided a higher proportion of carbohydrate than did foods eaten as meals. These results indicate that a high EF is likely to lead to a high carbohydrate diet, which may be favourable for weight control. Our ®ndings suggest that in this population, a high EF was associated with leanness in men, and there was no link between EF and body weight status in women.

The present paper reviews the literature on breakfast to consider reported associations between breakfast and nutritional, physiological and biochemical variables. The contribution of breakfast to achieving nutrition targets for fat, carbohydrate and dietary fibre intakes is also examined as are the potential effects of fortified breakfast cereals on intakes of micronutrients and nutritional status. Breakfast consumption, particularly if the meal includes a breakfast cereal, is associated with lower intakes of fat and higher intakes of carbohydrate, dietary fibre and certain micronutrients. These findings may be relevant to population groups which could be at risk from low intakes of certain micronutrients, but further clarification of benefit is needed from studies of nutritional status. Associations between breakfast consumption and lower cholesterol levels have been reported, while lower body weights have been seen amongst breakfast eaters. It is concluded that breakfast consumption is a marker for an appropriate dietary pattern in terms of both macro-and micronutrients, particularly if breakfast cereals are included in the meal. Breakfast: Micronutrients: Dietary fatMuch interest has focused on the role of breakfast in the diet, probably due to anecdotal evidence of its effects on nutrition and physiology. The result has been a plethora of studies aimed at making an objective assessment of such claims. The present paper examines studies reporting associations between breakfast and a number of important health-related issues: dietary intake, nutritional status, serum lipids, appetite and body weight. The case of breakfast cereals, which appear to be the most commonly-eaten food at breakfast, will be highlighted where it has been reported separately in the literature. The role of breakfast in the diet will be discussed in the context of dietary guidelines to reduce percentage energy from fat, increase carbohydrate and fibre intakes and ensure appropriate intakes of vitamins and minerals. BREAKFAST CONSUMPTIONReports on breakfast consumption indicate that children under 10 years old and adults over 65 years eat breakfast on a more regular basis than any other age group. Breakfast omission is most frequent in young adults and children aged between 13 and 16 years, 7 % of whom have nothing to eat before attending school (Gardner Merchant, 1996). Curry & Todd (1992) reported that only 62 % of 11-15-year-olds took breakfast every day and that 20 %

Previous studies have shown high levels of self‐reported nutrition label use, yet when tested consumers have difficulty in using label information effectively. Using verbal protocol analysis, this study explored nutrition label use directly, identifying the tasks consumers actually undertake, and how these are used to inform choice. The implications of the findings for labelling policy and nutrition education are discussed.

The contribution of breakfast to mean daily energy and nutrient intakes was investigated in a sample of 7-8-year-old children recruited by letter from five Scottish schools. After eighteen families dropped out of the study and three dietary records were discarded, the final sample numbered 136 (51 %). Dietary data were collected using the 7 d weighed inventory, while a questionnaire was used to classify children into manual or non-manual social class groups. Mean daily energy intakes were close to estimated average requirements (Department of Health, 1991), while intakes of most micronutrients were in excess of reference nutrient intakes (RNI; Department of Health, 1991). The most popular breakfast consumed by the children was one including a ready-to-eat breakfast cereal (RTEBC). Differences in macronutrient content were seen between breakfasts of boys and girls, while manual-social-class children ate breakfasts which were lower in energy, NSP and certain micronutrients than those of non-manual-class children. Breakfast contributed 14% of energy and 9-36% of micronutrient intakes to the overall diets.Breakfasts including RTEBC contributed significantly more energy and nutrients than other types of breakfast. Children who ate RTEBC nearly every day had overall diets which had a higher nutrient density and were lower in fat than those of children who ate RTEBC less frequently or not at all. Intakes of most micronutrients were above tbe RNI in both these groups, with the exception of folate, Fe and vitamin A, which were below the RNI for those consuming RTEBC infrequently. However, the type of breakfast eaten did not appear to influence energy and nutrient intakes at other meals during the day. Nevertheless, it was concluded that breakfast, particularly one containing RTEBC, had a strong influence on the daily energy and nutrient intakes of 7-8-year-old children, particularly by reducing the proportion of energy from fat.Nutrient intake: Breakfast: Schoolchildren

WHYBROW, STEPHEN, CLAUS MAYER, TERRY R. KIRK, NIK MAZLAN, AND R. JAMES STUBBS. Effects of two weeks' mandatory snack consumption on energy intake and energy balance. Obesity. 2007;15:673-685. Objective: Our goal was to compare the effects of mandatory consumption of commercial snack products (CSPs) on energy intakes and energy balance in free-living adults and to assess the interaction between habitual level of CSP consumption and the interventions. Research Methods and Procedures: Four groups of 18 subjects (lean and overweight, males and females) were studied using a crossover design. Subjects consumed one type of CSP (high-carbohydrate, high-fat, or mixed composition) at three manipulations of energy 0 MJ (control), 1.5 MJ (low-energy), and 3.0 MJ (high-energy) each day during three 14-day interventions. The study design was parallel for type of CSP (macronutrient composition) and withinsubjects for energy level. Subjects self-recorded food intakes between Days 8 and 14, and body weights were investigator-recorded on Days 1, 8, and 15 of each intervention period. Daily energy expenditure was estimated by heart rate monitoring. Results: Daily energy intakes increased from 10.4 MJ (control) to 11.1 MJ (low-energy) and 11.5 MJ (high-energy) (p Ͻ 0.001), resulting in a trend (not significant) for body weight gain. Energy balance was more positive when subjects were not recording their food intakes than when they were (p Ͻ 0.001). There was a trend (not significant) for greater increases in energy intake with increasing fat content, and energy density, of the interventions. Frequent CSP consumers compensated more for the interventions than did infrequent CSP consumers (R 2 ϭ 0.125, p ϭ 0.003). Discussion: Subjects partially compensated for energy when supplemented with CSPs over 14-day periods, although this was insufficient to prevent some increase in energy balance. The level of compensation correlated with habitual energy intake from CSPs.