Characterization and Modulation of Systemic Inflammatory Response to Exhaustive Exercise in Relation to Oxidative Stress

Abstract

Exhaustive exercise induces systemic inflammatory responses, which are associated with exercise-induced tissue/organ damage, but the sources and triggers are not fully understood. Herein, the basics of inflammatory mediator cytokines and research findings on the effects of exercise on systemic inflammation are introduced. Subsequently, the association between inflammatory responses and tissue damage is examined in exercised and overloaded skeletal muscle and other internal organs. Furthermore, an overview of the interactions between oxidative stress and inflammatory mediator cytokines is provided. Particularly, the transcriptional regulation of redox signaling and pro-inflammatory cytokines is described, as the activation of the master regulatory factor nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) is involved directly or indirectly in controlling pro-inflammatory genes and antioxidant enzymes expression, whilst nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) regulates the pro-inflammatory gene expression. Additionally, preventive countermeasures against the pathogenesis along with the possibility of interventions such as direct and indirect antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents are described. The aim of this review is to give an overview of studies on the systematic inflammatory responses to exercise, including our own group as well as others. Moreover, the challenges and future directions in understanding the role of exercise and functional foods in relation to inflammation and oxidative stress are discussed.

The Integrative Role of Sulforaphane in Preventing Inflammation, Oxidative Stress and Fatigue: A Review of a Potential Protective Phytochemical

“…Whilst regular physical exercise has many health benefits, these beneficial effects can be reversed with intense/exhaustive exercise. As such, depending on the intensity and duration of exercise, it may cause muscle and/or organ damage [ 78 ]. During acute and/or exhaustive exercise, inflammatory cells such as neutrophils and macrophages infiltrate into injured tissues and can, therefore, reduce exercise performance and increase fatigue and soreness.…”

“…Exercise increases blood supply in muscle tissue, but excessive production of ROS causes hypoperfusion of other internal organs, and results in organ damage. Production of cytokines, chemokines, and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are increased in the damaged cells, which enhances migration of leukocytes to the damaged tissues and causes further damage [ 78 ]. In this regard, SFN is an active antioxidant to prevent muscle and internal organ damage ( Figure 2 ).…”

Physical activity and nutrition guidelines to help with the fight against COVID-19

“…These aspects highlight the necessity of staying as active as possible during 2019-nCoV quarantine period. Exercise has long been recognized as an important mediator of inflammatory processes which could suppress or reinforce the immune system (Batatinha et al, 2019;Suzuki, 2019;Suzuki et al, 2020). Some studies have suggested that the effect of exercise training on the immune system shows a doseresponse relationship, meaning that training variables could determine the effects (Batrakoulis et al, 2019).…”

A Short Overview of Changes in Inflammatory Cytokines and Oxidative Stress in Response to Physical Activity and Antioxidant Supplementation

“…In fact, under oxidative stress, Nrf2 within the nucleus interacts with antioxidant responsive element (ARE), leading to cell survival. However, under hemostatic conditions, Nrf2 binds to the suppressor of the keap1 protein in the cytoplasm and is thus targeted by ubiquinine-dependent degradation in the proteasome [125,126]. On the other hand, many studies have recently concluded that Nrf2 can play an effective role in the prevention and treatment of diseases including exercise-induced organ damage and inflammation [122,123,126].…”