Cholesterol-raising diterpenes in types of coffee commonly consumed in Singapore, Indonesia and India and associations with blood lipids: A survey and cross sectional study

Abstract

BackgroundTo measure the content of cholesterol-raising diterpenes in coffee sold at the retailer level in Singapore, Indonesia and India and to determine the relationship of coffee consumption with lipid levels in a population-based study in Singapore.MethodsSurvey and cross-sectional study in local coffee shops in Singapore, Indonesia and India to measure the diterpene content in coffee, and a population-based study in Singapore to examine the relationship of coffee consumption and blood lipid levels. Interviews and coffee samples (n = 27) were collected from coffee shops in Singapore, Indonesia and India. In addition, 3000 men and women who were Chinese, Malay, and Indian residents of Singapore participated in a cross-sectional study.Results and DiscussionThe traditional 'sock' method of coffee preparation used in Singapore resulted in cafestol concentrations comparable to European paper drip filtered coffee (mean 0.09 ± SD 0.064 mg/cup). This amount would result in negligible predicted increases in serum cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations. Similarly low amounts of cafestol were found in Indian 'filter' coffee that used a metal mesh filter (0.05 ± 0.05 mg/cup). Coffee samples from Indonesia using the 'sock' method (0.85 ± 0.41 mg/cup) or a metal mesh filter (0.98 mg/cup) contained higher amounts of cafestol comparable to espresso coffee. Unfiltered coffee from Indonesia contained an amount of cafestol (4.43 mg/cup) similar to Scandinavian boiled, Turkish and French press coffee with substantial predicted increases in serum cholesterol (0.33 mmol/l) and triglycerides (0.20 mmol/l) concentrations for consumption of 5 cups per day. In the Singaporean population, higher coffee consumption was not substantially associated with serum lipid concentrations after adjustment for potential confounders [LDL-cholesterol: 3.07 (95% confidence interval 2.97-3.18) for <1 cup/week versus 3.12 (2.99-3.26) for ≥ 3 cups/day; p trend 0.12].ConclusionsBased on the low levels of diterpenes found in traditionally prepared coffee consumed in Singapore and India, coffee consumption in these countries does not appear to be a risk factor for elevation of serum cholesterol, whereas samples tested from Indonesia showed mixed results depending on the type of preparation method used.

A Comprehensive Overview of the Risks and Benefits of Coffee Consumption

“…Moreover, abstinence from coffee for at least 6 weeks will lower cholesterol concentrations in the general population (Christensen and others ) and in hypercholesterolemic patients (Forde and others ). This negative effect of coffee on cholesterol concentrations, particularly from boiled coffee, is owing to higher concentrations of diterpenes (kahweol and cafestol) in such coffee preparations (deGroot and others ; Gross and others ; Naidoo and others ). However, 4 randomized controlled trials have shown that diterpenes have lipoprotein(a)‐reducing potential, but the authors concluded that their well‐known adverse side effects on LDL cholesterol preclude their use as such (Urgert and others ).…”

Coffee Intake and Gastric Cancer Risk: The Singapore Chinese Health Study

“…In Singapore, coffee grounds are typically boiled in water and then filtered through a muslin bag, a process that results in brewed coffee that has similar concentrations of the diterpenes kahweol and cafestol relative to the use of a paper filter, as in most Western populations (10, 17). In a meta-analysis of 6 cohort and 16 case-control studies, Botelho et al .…”

The effect of coffee consumption on serum lipids: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

“…Controversies regarding its risks and benefits still exist as substances in coffee may have either unfavorable or beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system. 1 A large body of epidemiology studies, including recent studies, [2][3][4][5] examining the association between coffee consumption and serum lipids have yielded inconsistent results.…”

“…Controversies regarding its risks and benefits still exist as substances in coffee may have either unfavorable or beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system. 1 A large body of epidemiology studies, including recent studies, [2][3][4][5] examining the association between coffee consumption and serum lipids have yielded inconsistent results.A meta-analysis of nine randomized controlled trials (RCTs) published before December 1998 concluded that consumption of unfiltered, but not filtered, coffee increased serum levels of total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). 6 However, this meta-analysis was only based on English-language literature and the authors failed to include two important RCTs, 7,8 which included 345 participants.…”