Confirmation of Antimicrobial Resistance by Using Resistance Genes of Isolated Salmonella spp. in Chicken Houses of North West, South Africa.

Abstract

The widespread use of antibiotics for treatment of bacterial infections and growth promotion in the poultry industry has effectively increased antibiotic resistance around the world. Antibiotics resistance can be caused by different mechanisms and can be determined through phenotypic and molecular methods. The aim of the present study was to determine the occurrence of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella serovars isolated from layer chickens and rats in poultry houses. Phenotypic testing of antimicrobial resistance was performed using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. Furthermore, molecular evaluations and PCR assay were conducted for detecting resistance genes and class 1 integrons. A total of 144 Salmonella isolates (68 from rats and 46 from chickens) serovars were assessed. Evaluation of phenotypic resistance patterns demonstrated that Salmonella isolates have the highest antibiotic resistance for rifampicin (100%) followed by tetracycline (68%), ciprofloxacin (48%), sulphonamides (42%), chloramphenicol (39%), nalidixic acid (33%), ampicillin (28%), cephalothin (18%), streptomycin (18%), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (6%), enrofloxacin (5%), and gentamicin (4%). Some Salmonella serovars revealed multi-drug resistance for up to four different antibiotics. According to PCR results, all the tested resistant gene markers (tet, cat, blaTEM, sul, qnrA, and aadA) were detected from the Salmonella isolates. The study further confirmed that 68% of Salmonella isolates were harboring class 1 integrons and the majority of the isolates (n=52) which were harboring these genes were recovered from the rats. The results of the present study provided that the Salmonella spp. isolated from chickens and rats in poultry houses, exhibited significant antibiotic resistance. Moreover, the current research ultimately highlights the importance of rats as carriers of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the risk of transmission to chickens and humans. DECLARATIONSAuthor's contributions Ramatla T. performed the experiments and wrote the first draft. Moeti OT and Thekisoe OMM provided the analysis tools and data analysis and reviewed the manuscript. Michelo S conceived and designed the experiments, provided reagents, materials and approved the final paper. Consent to publishAll the authors agreed to publish the manuscript and declared that this work has not been previously published elsewhere.

Prevalence of Multidrug Resistance Non-Typhoidal Salmonellae Isolated from Layer Farms and Humans in Egypt.

“…Salmonellosis is one of the most important foodborne diseases in humans, which has been increasing in recent years (Harsha et al, 2011). Salmonellosis can be transmitted through the food chain, especially poultry products in the absence of proper hygiene and infection control practices (Ifeanyichukwu et al, 2016;Ramatla et al, 2019). Contaminated feces excreted into the environment could be a source of the bacteria to naive hosts, sustaining its existence over the layer farm environment, therefore, feces played an important role in Salmonella dispersal (Carrique-Mas and Davies 2008;Oloso et al, 2018).…”

“…Similarly, Abdi et al (2017) indicated that gentamicin is still effective against Salmonella regardless of the time or location of the study. Ramatla et al (2019) reported that 4% of Salmonella isolates were resistant to gentamicin. On the other side, Abunna et al (2016) and Akhtar et al (2010) were detected resistant to kanamycin, nalidixic acid, and chloramphenicol.…”

“…Among these, chicken meat and eggs are the kinds of food that regularly cause salmonellosis (Jackson et al, 2013;Middleton et al, 2014;Phagoo and Neetoo, 2015). Therefore, the food chain, especially poultry-derived foods, can be considered as a major public health issue; if they serve as a route for the advent and dispersion of resistant bacteria including Salmonella species in the environment (Mossie and Dires, 2016;Oloso et al, 2018;Ramatla, et al, 2019).…”

Zoonotic Significance and Antimicrobial Resistance in Salmonella in Poultry in Bangladesh for the Period of 2011–2021

“…Previously Zdragas et al [101] reported 33.30% rifampicin resistance in avian Salmonella in Greece and Ramatla et al [102] reported 100% rifampicin resistance in avian Salmonella in South Africa. Horizontal transfer of rifampicin-resistant genes from human isolates to avian species might be linked with this observed resistance in avian isolates.…”

Prevalence of Salmonella serotypes S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium in poultry and poultry products

“…Foodborne and zoonotic Salmonella infections continue to pose risk to the public health worldwide (Ramatla, Taioe, Thekisoe, & Syakalima, 2019). Non-typhoid Salmonella (NTS) infections develop bacteremia and extra-intestinal complications such as urinary tract infections, meningitis, endocarditis, and pneumonia (Arii et al, 2002).…”