Disappeared Historic Open Spaces in the Center of Saint Petersburg

Abstract

Terms and Definitions An analysis of terms used to describe open spaces in various fields of urban planning revealed some fundamental discrepancies in definitions of key concepts. "Public spaces represent a part of the urban environment that is constantly available for people

The Russian General Staff: Understanding the Military's Decisionmaking Role in a "Besieged Fortress"

“…76 Baluevskii, 2006. 77 MoD, undated-d. 78 As of this writing, the GRU is headed by Colonel General Igor' Kostyukov (born in 1961), who started as a naval officer. After graduating from the Military-Diplomatic Academy, he spent most of his military career in the GRU.…”

“…77 Whisler assesses, "such a bias may place limitations on the extent to which the Russian Armed Forces will embrace 'jointness' as defined by the US military." 78 However, even if the General Staff is culturally Ground Forces-dominant, it does show a recent tendency to align priorities and spending in accordance with Russian strategy and operational needs, at times designating the Ground Forces as a lower priority. 79 The General Staff encourages interservice competition and discourages interservice rivalry.…”

“…As noted in earlier sections, a key objection to previous reform efforts was the contention that the military was insufficiently resourced to undertake such an overhaul. 78 It was certainly the case that the military suffered a shock in the 1990s, when the defense budget was cut to less than U.S. $20 billion by 1998. 79 However, throughout the 2000s, when the price of oil per barrel steadily increased, reaching a peak around $100 per barrel, Russian defense spending increased steadily, growing to roughly $58 billion by 2008.…”

“…77 Shamiev, 2021, p. 6. 78 Baluevskii, 2006. 79 Renz, 2018, p. 55, citing the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute's Military Expenditure Database.…”

“…connect the various nodes in Figure 5.1 are based on documented connections, including meetings, phone calls, and other connections (e.g., gifts provided, formal adviser-advisee relationship). 78 Figure 5.1 shows a central cluster of nodes with peripheral actors branching outward from the center. The number of ties between nodes ranged from 1 to 7.…”