Dreams of Tigers and Flowers: Child Gender Predictions and Preference in an Urban Mainland Chinese Sample During Pregnancy

Loo, Kek Khee; Luo, Xiying; Su, Hong; Presson, Angela P.; Li, Yan

doi:10.1080/03630240802694673

Cited by 14 publications

(9 citation statements)

References 32 publications

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“…This unbalanced ratio of male-to-female births has persisted for nearly forty years [ 21 ]. Traditionally, women in Asian countries have a cultural preference for boys over girls, especially in rural China [ 22 ]. The cohorts in other countries have an excess of male perinatal deaths compared with female perinatal deaths, but in the Chinese cohort, females were more likely to die than males [ 23 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Cross sectional study in China: fetal gender has adverse perinatal outcomes in mainland China

Hou

Wang

et al. 2014

BMC Pregnancy Childbirth

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BackgroundThe association between fetal gender and pregnancy outcomes has been thoroughly demonstrated in western populations. However, this association has not been thoroughly documented in China. The primary objective of the present study is to determine whether the association of adverse pregnancy and labour outcomes with male fetuses applies to the Chinese population.MethodsThis cross-sectional hospital-based retrospective survey collected data from thirty-nine hospitals in 2011 in mainland China. A total of 109,722 women with singleton pregnancy who delivered after 28 weeks of gestation were included.ResultsOf these pregnancies, the male-to-female sex ratio was 1.2. The rates of preterm birth (7.3% for males, 6.5% for females) and fetal macrosomia (8.3% for males, 5.1% for females) were higher for male newborns, whereas fetal growth restriction (8.0% for females, 5.4% for males) and malpresentation (4.3% for females, 3.6% for males) were more frequent among female-bearing mothers. A male fetus was associated with an increased incidence of operative vaginal delivery (1.3% for males, 1.1% for females), caesarean delivery (55.0% for males, 52.9% for females), and cephalopelvic disproportion/failure to progress (10.0% for males, 9.2% for female). Male gender was also significantly associated with lower Apgar scores (<7 at 5 min, adjusted odds ratio 1.3, 95% CI 1.0-1.6), as well as a neonatal intensive care unit admission and neonatal death, even after adjustments for confounders (adjusted odds ratio 1.3, 95% CI 1.1-1.5, adjusted odds ratio 1.4, 95% CI 1.1-1.8).ConclusionWe confirm the existence of obvious neonatal gender bias and adverse outcomes for male fetuses during pregnancy and labour in our population. Further research is required to understand the mechanisms and clinical implications of this phenomenon.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12884-014-0372-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Cross sectional study in China: fetal gender has adverse perinatal outcomes in mainland China

Hou

Wang

et al. 2014

BMC Pregnancy Childbirth

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“…This may be due to the traditional preference for males that still exists in China today despite Westernization during the late 20th century. This male-preference is prevalent today even among younger and highly educated Chinese women (Loo et al, 2009). Because of this, Chinese boys may receive more cognitive enrichment, including early educational exposure and nutritional advantages, during the prenatal and early childhood periods, as previous studies have shown that early nutritional factors have long-term effects on children's cognitive development (Liu et al, 2003).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Factor structure and sex differences on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence in China, Japan and United States

Liu

Lynn

2011

Personality and Individual Differences

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This study presents data on the factor structure of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) and sex and cultural differences in WPPSI test scores among 5- and 6-year-olds from China, Japan, and the United States. Results show the presence of a verbal and nonverbal factor structure across all three countries. Sex differences on the 10 subtests were generally consistent, with a male advantage on a subtest of spatial abilities (Mazes). Males in the Chinese sample obtained significantly higher Full Scale IQ scores than females and had lower variability in their test scores. These observations were not present in the Japan and United States samples. Mean Full Scale IQ score in the Chinese sample was 104.1, representing a 4-point increase from 1988 to 2004.

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“…Although the urban population is generally more highly educated and less dependent on male children for financial security and self-sustenance, bearing a male child continues to indicate higher status in Chinese society, and male child preference has been detected at subtle levels among urban women with high levels of education [23]. In the present study based on a rural cohort, the net preference was for males even though 93% of the women were nulliparous, expecting their first child, and hence would have a second chance to bear a male child.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Prenatal anxiety associated with male child preference among expectant mothers at 10–20 weeks of pregnancy in Xiangyun County, China

Loo

Tan

et al. 2010

Intl J Gynecology & Obste

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Objective To examine the relationship between male child preference and maternal prenatal psychological distress among expectant mothers from Xiangyun County, Yunnan Province, China. Methods Child gender preference, state-trait anxiety and depression, relationships with the husband and mother-in-law, and self-esteem were measured in a sample of 198 women between 10 and 20 weeks of pregnancy. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify risk factors for prenatal anxiety. Results Prenatal anxiety was correlated with male child preference (r = 0.15, P<0.05), maternal age (r = −0.17, P<0.05), level of education (r = −0.23, P<0.01), self-esteem (r = −0.36, P<0.01), relationship with mother-in-law (r = −0.34, P<0.01), and relationship with husband (r = −0.35, P<0.01). Significant relationships were maintained in multivariate analysis that included gender preference, maternal education, pregnancy anxiety, self-esteem, number of people in the household, and relationship with husband as predictors (adjusted r2 = 0.28, P<0.001). Conclusion Male child preference was associated with prenatal anxiety in this sample. Younger maternal age, lower self-esteem, lower level of education, worse relationship with husband, and less family cohesiveness were also related to prenatal anxiety. Expectant mothers experienced prenatal anxiety when there was strong family preference for sons.

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Dreams of Tigers and Flowers: Child Gender Predictions and Preference in an Urban Mainland Chinese Sample During Pregnancy

Cited by 14 publications

References 32 publications

Cross sectional study in China: fetal gender has adverse perinatal outcomes in mainland China

Cross sectional study in China: fetal gender has adverse perinatal outcomes in mainland China

Factor structure and sex differences on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence in China, Japan and United States

Prenatal anxiety associated with male child preference among expectant mothers at 10–20 weeks of pregnancy in Xiangyun County, China

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