Fault tree analysis of fires on rooftops with photovoltaic systems

Ong, Nur Aliah Fatin Mohd Nizam; Sadiq, Muhammad Adnan; Said, Mohamad Syazarudin Md; Jomaas, Grunde; Tohir, Mohd Zahirasri Mohd; Kristensen, Janni Brogaard

doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103752

Cited by 29 publications

(12 citation statements)

References 26 publications

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“…Generally, statistical data for PV-related fires is sparse and there is no knowledge about any recent data from any fire brigades, but a recent analysis estimated that the annual fire incident frequency is 28.9 fires per GW capacity [17]. In Italy, around 460 PV related fires occurred annually between 2011 and 2015 according to Bonomo et al [18], whereas a German survey from 2013 identified a total of 430 PV related fires [5].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Experimental Study of the Fire Dynamics in a Semi-enclosure Formed by Photovoltaic (PV) Installations on Flat Roof Constructions

2022

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Flame spread experiments upon a BROOF(t4) compliant flat roof mock-up located below a vertical barrier were carried out for variations in gap height, inclination, subjacent insulation material, and the barrier type (stainless-steel board or photovoltaic (PV) module). A binary flame spread scenario was identified, where re-radiation from the flame facilitated self-sustained flame spread if the gap height to the horizontal panel was below 10 cm for the stainless-steel board and 11 cm for PV modules. These were defined as the critical gap heights. Inclination of the PV modules increased the critical gap height and caused a 25% faster flame spread rate (FSR) than the FSR below horizontal modules with the same gap height at the location of ignition. The faster FSR for inclined modules caused a 40% reduction of the maximum temperature measured at a depth of 70 mm in the insulation materials (242°C). Based on temperatures measured in the insulation materials, the 60 mm polyisocyanurate (PIR) insulation performed slightly better than the 50 mm mineral wool insulation. However, it is expected that the mineral wool would outperform the PIR insulation if tested with the same thickness, as it insulates significantly better at high temperatures. Finally, no sustained flame spread was observed on the back side polymer sheet of the PV modules, but one of the three PV module brands produced burning droplets. Based on the experiments, it can be concluded that the current standards are inadequate as the introduction of a PV system on a compliant roof construction enables flame spread.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Experimental Study of the Fire Dynamics in a Semi-enclosure Formed by Photovoltaic (PV) Installations on Flat Roof Constructions

2022

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“…The fault tree analysis (FTA) conducted by Mohd Nizam Ong et al 16 established an annual PV fire incident frequency of 0.029 fires per MW, with PV connectors being the prime contributor. These findings are closely related to improper installation practices as a significant contributing factor to PV fire hazards 16,17 . When PV modules catch fire, it results in a reduction of energy generation, 18 toxic gas releases, 18–20 property damage, 9,18–20 and even casualties 9,19 .…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…According to Mazziotti, 15 fires involving PV systems could be originating from an internal source (within the PV system) or be caused by external sources. The fault tree analysis (FTA) conducted by Mohd Nizam Ong et al 16 established an annual PV fire incident frequency of 0.029 fires per MW, with PV connectors being the prime contributor. These findings are closely related to improper installation practices as a significant contributing factor to PV fire hazards 16,17 .…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…These findings are closely related to improper installation practices as a significant contributing factor to PV fire hazards. 16,17 When PV modules catch fire, it results in a reduction of energy generation, 18 toxic gas releases, [18][19][20] property damage, 9,[18][19][20] and even casualties. 9,19 The two major fire safety concerns in BAPV are (a) the large DC system on a building that increased the probability of ignition 21,22 and (b) a change in fire dynamic scenario due to the alteration of existing roof construction by trapping heat near the roof, causing the fire to spread faster.…”

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BowTie analysis of rooftop grid‐connected photovoltaic systems

Ong

Tohir

Mutlak

et al. 2022

Process Safety Progress

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With the rapid growth of the worldwide photovoltaic (PV) installation, the number of fire incidents involving PV systems also shows an increasing trend. Several studies revealed that installing PV systems on the rooftop has introduced an additional fire risk to the building. Therefore, risk assessment is required to identify the possible cause of fire initiation involving PV systems and subsequently provide the solar industry with fire risk information regarding PV faults. A BowTie analysis of rooftop grid‐connected PV systems was conducted, where initiation of ignition was determined as the hazard and PV fires as the loss event. Four threats in the BowTie analysis were identified using fault tree analysis, that is, arc fault, ground fault, hotspot effect at PV modules, and overheating. Arc fault contributes the most to PV fire incidents, while poor installation of PV systems was found to be the primary underlying cause of all PV fault scenarios. The main factor is due to lack of fire safety knowledge and negligence behavior of the installers. The consequences of PV fires in the BowTie diagram were investigated from the event tree analysis. Twelve possible outcomes were identified and regrouped to five consequences, that is, respiratory poisons, electrical shock, fall from heights, asset damage, and fire propagation. The evaluation of the consequences of PV fire shows that electrical shock poses a very high risk to the surrounding people, including firefighters. Additional measures are proposed to reduce the impact of electric shock.

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“…As PV installation and its application proliferate, the risk and probability of a fire occurring will eventually evolve. Research conducted by Mohd Nizam Ong et al [ 8 ] revealed that the annual incident frequency of rooftop PV fires is approximately 0.029 fires per MW, with PV connectors being the prime contributor. PV fires are also highly related to the poor installation practices by PV installers [ 8 – 10 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Review on Safety Practices for Firefighters During Photovoltaic (PV) Fire

et al. 2022

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In recent years, it is evident that there is a surge in photovoltaic (PV) systems installations on buildings. It is concerning that PV system related fire incidents have been reported throughout the years. Like any other electrical power system, PV systems pose fire and electrical hazards when at fault. As a consequence, PV fires compromised the safety of emergency responders. Therefore, the objective of this review is to evaluate the elements of firefighters' safety practices and subsequently collate the best safety practices for local fire rescue and firefighters in the event of PV fires. Out of 264 documents, only 20 publications were identified as ‘closely related’ and were systematically reviewed to evaluate firefighter safety practices from a scholarly perspective. Only 3% of the 20 publications reviewed, discussed the safety practices during PV fires. Thirteen safety practice key points were extracted from the reviewed documents, with nine critical findings highlighted as the hallmark of safety practices during PV fire for firefighters. The lack of academic journals discussing the fire safety aspects proves that there is a low interest in this field which is in dire need of further study and exploration to adhere with the PV population in ensuring a reliable emergency operation to minimize losses or injuries due to accidents.

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Fault tree analysis of fires on rooftops with photovoltaic systems

Cited by 29 publications

References 26 publications

Experimental Study of the Fire Dynamics in a Semi-enclosure Formed by Photovoltaic (PV) Installations on Flat Roof Constructions

Experimental Study of the Fire Dynamics in a Semi-enclosure Formed by Photovoltaic (PV) Installations on Flat Roof Constructions

BowTie analysis of rooftop grid‐connected photovoltaic systems

A Review on Safety Practices for Firefighters During Photovoltaic (PV) Fire

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