From Old Schools to Tomorrow's Schools

Abstract

Despite the promise of Brown v. Board of Education, segregation is alive and well in today's schools. African American students are overrepresented in special education, have higher dropout rates, are suspended and expelled at higher rates, and are subject to persistent educational inequity. The role of psychoeducational assessment at the intersection of difference and disability has contributed to the persistent misidentification and overrepresentation of African American students in special education. However, paradigms for assessment hold promise for fulfilling the hope of Brown in tomorrow's schools. In order to describe the impact of past and present psychoeducational assessment practices on African American learners, we track the evolution of psychoeducational assessment in the context of three eras: (a) prior to Brown, or “old schools”; (b) post Brown, an era of hope for “new schools”; and (c) the situation in today's schools. The education of African American students and students with disabilities emerge as parallel and intertwined throughout this history.

Analysis of Special Education Tribunal Outcomes Using Luhmann's Systems Theory

“…This is not to say that Tribunals should rely on standardized assessments in their decisions. Standardized testing has a long and cruel history of use in segregation: these tests are development based on theories of normalization and do not adequately capture the intellectual functioning of children with disabilities (Green, 2005;Schneider, 1992). According to Jackson (2011), psychological assessments are also "value-laden" as "…all observers interpret evidence in the context of their own personal histories, assumptions, and values."…”

Generations of Criminalization: Resistance to Desegregation and School Punishment

“…Massive resistance ensued in the aftermath of Brown across the U.S. Responses included strategies to resegregate Black and white students, like silent policy changes, freedom of choice, student assignment plans, de facto segregation, segregationist academies, white private schools, and gerrymandering (Aldridge 1978; Benjamin 2012; Golub 2013; Green et al 2005; Porter et al 2014). Entities like real estate agencies, banks, and neighborhood boards responded by ensuring African Americans would be funneled into specific African American neighborhoods that were served by segregated school districts (Benjamin 2012; Denton 1996; Garcia and Yosso 2013; Killian and Grigg 1965; Rivkin 1994).…”

“…Scholars find the increased use of punishments, particularly suspension, following desegregation, particularly for Black students (Capers 2019; Eitle and Eitle 2003, 2004; Freeman and Steidl 2016; Larkin 1979; Pei et al 2013; So 1992; Thornton and Trent 1988). Prior work also finds disproportionate educational outcomes for Black students following desegregation, with Black students achieving lower academic outcomes than whites and being tracked into special education curriculum (Beck and Muschkin 2012; Borman et al 2004; Brun-Bevel and Byrd 2015; Caldas et al 2007; Farinde et al 2014; Green et al 2005; So 1992). Pursuit of education by African Americans has always been coupled with punishment and conflict.…”

Social justice and special education: Derailing the tracking of Black males. A case study of Walt Whitman High School

“…However, following the Brown decision, many formerly segregated schools introduced the use of IQ testing into their schools. Caruano (1979) has argued that for many school districts the introduction of IQ tests was largely an attempt to unofficially continue segregation by tracking minority students into low-ability groups (Green, Mcintosh, Cook-Morales, & Robinson-Zanartu, 2005). This was just the beginning; the use of tests to track Black students has remained one of the major issues of the testing debate which has continued today (Oakes, 2005).…”