GIV Noroviruses in Wastewaters and in Stool Specimens from Hospitalized Patients

Abstract

Noroviruses (NoVs) are important human pathogens associated with foodborne and waterborne gastroenteritis. These viruses are genetically highly heterogeneous, with more than forty genotypes within three genogroups (GI, GII, and GIV) identified in humans. However, the vast majority of human infections are associated with variants of a unique genotype, GII.4. Aside from these NoV strains of epidemiological relevance, NoV strains of genogroup GIV (Alphatron-like) are reported in a sporadic fashion and their overall prevalence in the community is unknown and this likely reflects the lack of specific diagnostic tools. We analyzed raw sewages collected from 32 wastewater treatment plants distributed throughout Italy (307 samples) and stool specimens collected from hospitalized patients with clinical signs of diarrhea of unknown etiology (285 samples). By using specific qualitative and quantitative RT-PCR assays, 21.8 % of the sewage samples and 3.2 % of the stool specimens tested positive for GIV NoVs. The number of genome copies in fecal samples ranged from 5.08 × 104 to 1.73× 106/g of feces. Sequence analysis showed limited genetic variability in human GIV viruses. The presence of GIV NoV both in sewage and in clinical samples confirms that not only GI and GII NoVs but also GIV strains are circulating in humans. Monitoring of GIV NoV is recommended in order to understand the dynamics of circulation in human populations, environmental contamination, and potential health risks.

Detection of human norovirus GIV.1 in China: A case report

“…Our study demonstrated a low prevalence of NoV GIV.1 as described in other studies [6,22,27,28]. Both the NoV GIV.1-positive patients were hospitalized with gastroenteritis in July of 2011 from Lulong County.…”

“…Human GIV.1 NoVs were first identified from sporadic cases of gastroenteritis [21]. From then on, they were occasionally detected in NoVs routine screenings of clinical and environmental samples [4][5][6][7]22]. Interestingly, in animals, GIV.2 NoVs were also detected [9,23,24].…”

First detection of papillomaviruses and polyomaviruses in swimming pool waters: unrecognized recreational water-related pathogens?

“…Before concentration, all samples were artificially contaminated with a murine norovirus (MNV‐1) used as sample process control, to calculate viral recovery efficiency (by quantitative PCR) and check for potential inhibitors (by qualitative PCR) as previously described (Muscillo et al . ).…”

Hepatitis A and E Viruses in Wastewaters, in River Waters, and in Bivalve Molluscs in Italy

“…The overall recovery efficiency was calculated by dividing the number of genome copies in the sample by the number of genome copies in the original virus preparation used for spiking samples. The primers and probes for the TaqMan RT-PCR assay were previously designed (Muscillo et al 2013). Real-Time PCRs were carried out in a MiniOpticon Real-Time PCR System (Bio Rad) with CFX Manager software control.…”