Hot, Humid Air Decontamination of Aircraft Confirmed That High Temperature and High Humidity Are Critical for Inactivation of Infectious, Enveloped Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Virus

Buhr, Tony L.; Young, Alice A.; Borgers-Klonkowski, Erica; Kennihan, Neil L.; Barnette, Harold K.; Minter, Z.A.; Bohmke, Matthew D.; Osborn, Emily B.; Hamilton, Shelia M.; Kimani, Monique B.; Hammon, Mark W.; Miller, Charles T.; Mackie, Ryan S.; Innocenti, Jennifer M.; Bensman, Misty D.; Gutting, Bradford W.; Lilly, Samuel D.; Hammer, Emlyn E.; Yates, Vanessa L.; Luck, Brooke B.

doi:10.3389/fbioe.2020.592621

Cited by 7 publications

(42 citation statements)

References 26 publications

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“…Recent literature has suggested Φ6 is an appropriate surrogate for infectious enveloped viruses, such as coronavirus ( Aquino de Carvalho et al. 2017 ; Prussin et al 2018 ; Buhr et al 2020 ; Dubuis et al 2020 ; Fedorenko et al 2020 ). Comparing different bacteriophages for viral aerosolization models, Φ6 was shown to behave comparably in nebulization experiments to influenza, another enveloped virus ( Turgeon et al 2014 ).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Dental Mitigation Strategies to Reduce Aerosolization of SARS-CoV-2

et al. 2021

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Limiting infection transmission is central to the safety of all in dentistry, particularly during the current severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic. Aerosol-generating procedures (AGPs) are crucial to the practice of dentistry; it is imperative to understand the inherent risks of viral dispersion associated with AGPs and the efficacy of available mitigation strategies. In a dental surgery setting, crown preparation and root canal access procedures were performed with an air turbine or high-speed contra-angle handpiece (HSCAH), with mitigation via rubber dam or high-volume aspiration and a no-mitigation control. A phantom head was used with a 1.5-mL min−1 flow of artificial saliva infected with Φ6-bacteriophage (a surrogate virus for SARS-CoV-2) at ~108 plaque-forming units mL−1, reflecting the upper limits of reported salivary SARS-CoV-2 levels. Bioaerosol dispersal was measured using agar settle plates lawned with the Φ6-bacteriophage host, Pseudomonas syringae. Viral air concentrations were assessed using MicroBio MB2 air sampling and particle quantities using Kanomax 3889 GEOα counters. Compared to an air turbine, the HSCAH reduced settled bioaerosols by 99.72%, 100.00%, and 100.00% for no mitigation, aspiration, and rubber dam, respectively. Bacteriophage concentrations in the air were reduced by 99.98%, 100.00%, and 100.00% with the same mitigations. Use of the HSCAH with high-volume aspiration resulted in no detectable bacteriophage, both on nonsplatter settle plates and in air samples taken 6 to 10 min postprocedure. To our knowledge, this study is the first to report the aerosolization in a dental clinic of active virus as a marker for risk determination. While this model represents a worst-case scenario for possible SARS-CoV-2 dispersal, these data showed that the use of HSCAHs can vastly reduce the risk of viral aerosolization and therefore remove the need for clinic fallow time. Furthermore, our findings indicate that the use of particle analysis alone cannot provide sufficient insight to understand bioaerosol infection risk.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Dental Mitigation Strategies to Reduce Aerosolization of SARS-CoV-2

et al. 2021

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“…2 centimeter (cm) x 2 cm coupons of different test materials were inoculated with ≥8.0 log10 PFU Φ6 virus inoculum (Buhr et al 2020). Materials for inoculation included stainless steel 304 (SS304), SS304 coupons painted with Navy Top Coat (NTC) (Coatings Group at the University of Dayton Research Institute (Dayton, OH, USA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) plastic (keyboard keys from Hewlett-Packard computer keyboards, later replaced with ABS), polyurethane plastic and cardboard.…”

Section: Coupon Materials and Sterilizationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…An overlay procedure for Φ6 was previously described (Buhr et al 2020). For Φ6 extraction from materials (coupons), 5 ml of 10mM HEPES + 10% sucrose pH7 were added to each conical tube with a virus-inoculated coupon and vortexed for 2 min.…”

Section: φ6 Extraction From Coupons and Platingmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Furthermore, based on published measurements, SARS-CoV-2 respiratory droplets are typically 0-1 virions per speech particle, 99.9875-99.9998% mucus, less than 0.013% virus, and the water in SARS-CoV-2 respiratory particles evaporates within seconds to generate dry particles in the respirable size range (Stadnytskyi et al 2020). Enveloped virus is more stable at dry conditions compared to wet environments (Chan et al 2011;Buhr et al 2020;Hadi et al 2020), and drying viruses via lyophilization is frequently used to stabilize virus for long-term storage (Greiff et al 1954;Greiff and Richtel 1966;Malenovska 2014). Hence tests on wet virus vice dry virus will also greatly impact decontamination kinetics.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Viruses that fall under higher World Health Organization (WHO) biosafety level (BSL) classifications such as SARS-CoV-2 (BSL-3) and its BSL-2 surrogate coronaviruses (Anonymous 2020) cannot be widely used in field tests because of cost, time, and safety constraints. For field testing, the enveloped virus surrogate Ф6 (Bibby et al 2015;Gallandat and Lantagne 2017;Fedorenko et al 2020) was previously used to make live/dead Ф6 test indicators to directly test and compare decontamination efficacy across lab and field tests (Buhr et al 2020).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Ultraviolet Dosage and Decontamination Efficacy was Widely Variable across 14 UV Devices after Testing a Dried Enveloped Ribonucleic Acid Virus Surrogate for SARS-CoV-2

Buhr

Borgers-Klonkowski

Gutting

et al. 2022

Preprint

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Aims: The dosages and efficacy of 14 ultraviolet (UV) decontamination technologies were measured against a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus that was dried on to different materials for lab and field testing. Methods and Results: A live enveloped, ribonucleic acid virus surrogate for SARS-CoV-2 was dried on stainless steel 304 (SS304), Navy Top Coat-painted SS304 (NTC), cardboard, polyurethane, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) at > 8.0 log10 plaque-forming units (PFU) per test coupon. The coupons were then exposed to UV light during both lab and field testing. Commercial and prototype UV-emitting devices were measured for efficacy; 4 handheld devices, 3 room/surface-disinfecting machines, 5 air-disinfection devices, and 2 larger custom-made machines. UV device dosages ranged from 0.01-729 mJ cm-2. Anti-viral efficacy among the different UV devices ranged from no decontamination up to nearly achieving sterilization. Importantly, cardboard required far more dosage than SS304. Conclusions: Enormous variability in dosage and efficacy was measured among the different UV devices. Porous materials limit the utility of UV decontamination. Significance and Impact of the Study: UV devices have wide variability in dosages, efficacy, hazards, and UV output over time indicating that each UV device needs independent technical measurement and assessment for product development, and prior to use.

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Evaluation of altered environmental conditions as a decontamination approach for SARS-CoV-2 when applied to aircraft related materials

Richter

Sunderman

Fulton

et al. 2023

Journal of Applied Microbiology

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Aims The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of altered environmental conditions, specifically elevated temperature at various levels of expected relative humidity (RH), on the inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 when applied to U.S. Air Force aircraft materials. Methods and results SARS CoV-2 (USA-WA1/2020) was spiked (approximately 1×105 TCID50) in either synthetic saliva or lung fluid, dried onto porous (e.g., Nylon strap) and nonporous materials (e.g., bare aluminum, silicone, and ABS plastic), placed in a test chamber and exposed to environmental conditions ranging from 40-51.7°C and RH ranging from 0-50%. The amount of infectious SARS-CoV-2 was then assessed at various timepoints from 0-2 days. Warmer test temperatures, higher RH, and longer exposure duration resulted in higher inactivation rates per material type. Synthetic saliva inoculation vehicle was more readily decontaminated compared to materials inoculated with synthetic lung fluid. Conclusions SARS-CoV-2 was readily inactivated below limit of quantitation (LOQ) for all materials inoculated using synthetic saliva vehicle within 6 hours when exposed to environmental conditions of 51.7°C and RH ≥ 25%. Synthetic lung fluid vehicle did not follow the general trend of an increase in RH resulting in increased efficacy. The lung fluid performed best at the 20-25% RH range to achieve complete inactivation below LOQ.

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Hot, Humid Air Decontamination of Aircraft Confirmed That High Temperature and High Humidity Are Critical for Inactivation of Infectious, Enveloped Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Virus

Cited by 7 publications

References 26 publications

Dental Mitigation Strategies to Reduce Aerosolization of SARS-CoV-2

Dental Mitigation Strategies to Reduce Aerosolization of SARS-CoV-2

Ultraviolet Dosage and Decontamination Efficacy was Widely Variable across 14 UV Devices after Testing a Dried Enveloped Ribonucleic Acid Virus Surrogate for SARS-CoV-2

Evaluation of altered environmental conditions as a decontamination approach for SARS-CoV-2 when applied to aircraft related materials

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