How Do You Learn to Walk? Thousands of Steps and Dozens of Falls per Day

Abstract

A century of research has described the development of walking based on periodic gait over a straight, uniform path. The current study provides the first corpus of natural infant locomotion based on spontaneous activity during free play. Locomotor experience was immense: 12- to 19-month-olds averaged 2368 steps and fell 17 times/hour. Novice walkers traveled farther faster than expert crawlers, but fall rates were comparable, suggesting that increased efficiency without increased cost motivates expert crawlers to transition to walking. After walking onset, natural locomotion dramatically improved: Infants took more steps, traveled farther distances, and fell less. Walking was distributed in short bouts with variable paths—frequently too short or irregular to qualify as periodic gait. Nonetheless, measures of periodic gait and natural locomotion were correlated, indicating that better walkers spontaneously walk more and fall less. Immense amounts of time-distributed, variable practice constitute the natural practice regimen for learning to walk.

Crawling and Walking Infants See the World Differently

“…We tested infants in a highly controlled setting for two reasons: to isolate postural contributions to infants’ visual experience, and to facilitate measurement of infants’ visual fields. Spontaneous locomotion differs dramatically between 12- to 13-month-old crawlers and walkers: Walkers spend more time in motion, travel three times the distance, explore more areas of the environment, and interact differently with their caregivers (Adolph et al, 2012; Clearfield, 2011; Karasik et al, in press). So in the current study, we held number of trips, path, and the caregiver’s interaction constant.…”

“…However, the promise of enhanced visual access the wider environment during locomotion may motivate infants to stand up and begin to walk. The ability to see more of the room while moving may contribute to the fact that novice walkers take more steps, travel father distances, and spend twice as much time in motion than experienced crawlers (Adolph et al, 2012). …”

“…Novice walkers take more steps, travel greater distances, and visit more places than experienced crawlers (Adolph et al, 2012; Clearfield, 2011). Walkers are more likely to cross the room to engage with distal objects, to carry objects across the room, and to cross the room to share objects with caregivers (Karasik, Adolph, Tamis-LeMonda, & Zuckerman, 2012; Karasik et al, 2011).…”

“…This is particularly relevant to development because the amount of time infants spend in different activities such as lying prone, sitting, crawling, cruising, and walking changes with developmental improvements in motor skill. In particular, crawling and walking have unique effects on infants’ experiences and cognitive outcomes (e.g., Adolph et al, 2012; Campos et al, 2000; Walle & Campos, in press). Many researchers have speculated that such effects stem from differences in visual input (Adolph, 1997; E.…”

Filtering for productive activity changes outcomes in step-based monitoring among children

“…Studies incorporating stride-activity data, in particular, have yielded compelling insights into the behavior of actors of all ages and abilities (Cavanaugh et al 2007, Orendurff 2008, Adolph et al 2012, Danks et al 2014, Tulchin-Francis et al 2014), and provide invaluable data for the formulation of recommendations for minimum activity levels (Vincent and Pangrazi 2002, Tudor-Locke et al 2004, Graser et al 2011). However, where empirical activity data are becoming the basis on which science and policy is founded, it is critically important that these data be trustworthy and well-understood.…”