How We Experience Being Alone: Age Differences in Affective and Biological Correlates of Momentary Solitude

Abstract

Background: Spending time alone constitutes a ubiquitous part of our everyday lives. As we get older, alone time increases. Less is known, however, about age differences in the experience of spending time alone (momentary solitude). Objectives: We examined time-varying associations between momentary solitude, affect quality, and two hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity markers [salivary cortisol; dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAs)] to better understand the affective and biological correlates of momentary solitude across the adult life span. Method: A total of 185 adults aged 20-81 years (mean age = 49 years, 51% female, 74% Caucasian) completed questionnaires on momentary solitude (alone vs. not alone) and current affect on a handheld device, and provided concurrent saliva samples up to seven times a day for 10 consecutive days. Data were analyzed using multilevel models, controlling for the overall amount of time participants spent alone during the study (overall solitude). Results: Greater overall solitude was associated with decreased average high arousal positive affect and increased average cortisol and DHEAs levels. Momentary solitude was associated with reduced high arousal positive affect, increased low arousal positive affect, and increased low arousal negative affect. Age by momentary solitude interactions indicate that greater age was associated with increased high arousal positive affect and reduced low arousal negative affect during momentary solitude. Furthermore, momentary solitude was associated with increased cortisol and DHEAs. With greater age, the association between momentary solitude and cortisol weakened. Conclusion: Consistent with the negative connotations to loneliness and objective social isolation, greater overall solitude was associated with negative affective and biological correlates. Spending a large overall amount of time alone in old age might thus have negative ramifications for health and well-being. Momentary solitude, in contrast, can be a double-edged sword as evidenced by both positive and negative well-being implications. Importantly, greater age is linked to more favorable affective and biological correlates of momentary solitude. The momentary state of spending time alone is thus an experience that is not necessarily negative and that may improve with aging.

Perseverative cognition, distracted communication, and well‐being in everyday social interaction

“…Furthermore, research indicates that moments of solitude might be less likely than moments of interaction to produce the types of positive affective experiences that offset the effects of rumination and worry on well‐being. As Pauly, Lay, Nater, Scott, and Hoppmann () found in their 10‐day ESM study, adults tend to experience lower high‐arousal positive affect (e.g., happiness) and higher low‐arousal negative affect (e.g., sadness) during moments of solitude, relative to moments of interaction. Other research, however, has been less clear regarding the differential consequences of social interaction versus alone time on affective well‐being.…”

Comparison between Relationships of Loneliness and Preference for Solitude with Some Socio-demographic Variables and Aspects of Subjective and Psychological Well-being of Adults

“…Nadalje, Larson (33) na temelju pregleda većeg broja istraživanja zaključuje da većina ljudi, neovisno o dobi ili kulturnoj pripadnosti, navodi da se osjeća usamljenije i nesretnije kada su sami nego kada su u društvu drugih. Neki empirijski nalazi ukazuju na negativan utjecaj koji velika količina vremena provedenog u samoći može imati na zdravlje i dobrobit odraslih i starijih osoba (39). Međutim, čini se da u negativnom odnosu preferirane samoće verse explanation is also possible, i.e.…”

“…Furthermore, Larson (33), based on a review of a number of studies, concludes that most people, regardless of their age or culture, report that they feel lonelier and unhappier when they are alone than when they are in the company of other people. Some empirical findings demonstrate a negative impact that a large amount of (39).…”

“…Pokazalo se da je u adolescenata i mladih, koji su više nego starije osobe izloženi društvenim očekivanjima da kreiraju široku socijalnu mrežu koja bi trebala imati mnoge korisne funkcije, čak i preferencija samoće negativno povezana s pokazateljima mentalnog zdravlja, odnosno da je povezana s negativnim afektom i nižim samopoštovanjem (37), kao i s povećanim rizikom suicidalne ideacije i samoozljeđivanja (38). Međutim, velika količina vremena provedenog u samoći može imati negativne učinke na zdravlje i subjektivnu dobrobit i odraslih i starijih osoba, dok kratkotrajna samoća nije nužno negativno iskustvo, a njezini pozitivni učinci s dobi jačaju (39). Ovdje je potrebno razlikovati samoću kao objektivno stanje odvojenosti od drugih, bez obzira na to je li svojevoljno izabrana ili ne, od preferencije samoće gdje je samoća željeno i dobrovoljno stanje lišenosti socijalnih kontakata.…”

“…That is, this preference is associated with a negative affect and lower self-esteem (37), as well as with an increased risk of suicidal ideation and self-harm (38). However, a large amount of time spent in solitude can have negative effects on the health and subjective well-being of adults and the elderly as well, while short-term solitude is not necessarily a negative experience and its positive effects increase with age (39). Here it is necessary to differentiate between solitude as an objective state of separation from others, regardless of whether it is voluntarily chosen or not, and the preference for solitude where solitude and the voluntary state of deprivation of social contacts are desired.…”