Impairment of Concept Formation Ability in Children with ADHD: Comparisons between Lower Grades and Higher Grades

Abstract

ObjectiveWe investigated executive functions (EFs), as evaluated by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and other EF between lower grades (LG) and higher grades (HG) in elementary-school-age attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) children.MethodsWe classified a sample of 112 ADHD children into 4 groups (composed of 28 each) based on age (LG vs. HG) and WCST performance [lower vs. higher performance on WCST, defined by the number of completed categories (CC)] Participants in each group were matched according to age, gender, ADHD subtype, and intelligence. We used the Wechsler intelligence Scale for Children 3rd edition to test intelligence and the Computerized Neurocognitive Function Test-IV, which included the WCST, to test EF.ResultsComparisons of EFs scores in LG ADHD children showed statistically significant differences in performing digit spans backward, some verbal learning scores, including all memory scores, and Stroop test scores. However, comparisons of EF scores in HG ADHD children did not show any statistically significant differences. Correlation analyses of the CC and EF variables and stepwise multiple regression analysis in LG ADHD children showed a combination of the backward form of the Digit span test and Visual span test in lower-performance ADHD participants significantly predicted the number of CC (R2=0.273, p<0.001).ConclusionThis study suggests that the design of any battery of neuropsychological tests for measuring EF in ADHD children should first consider age before interpreting developmental variations and neuropsychological test results. Researchers should consider the dynamics of relationships within EF, as measured by neuropsychological tests.

Effect of Atomoxetine on the Cognitive Functions in Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children with Congenital Hypothyroidism: A Pilot Study

“…The Stroop color-word test ( Stroop, 1935 ; Ji and Jiao, 1987 ; Golden and Golden, 2002 ) has been widely used to assess the executive functions of cognitive inhibition and selective attention. It includes four tasks: word reading, color reading, word reading of colored words, and color naming of colored words ( Hong et al, 2010 ). The completion times and the number of errors made during each task/test were recorded.…”

An Open-label, Self-control, Prospective Study on Cognitive Function, Academic Performance, and Tolerability of Osmotic-release Oral System Methylphenidate in Children with Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

“…The other efficacy outcomes included: (1) O/D subscale and sum score of parent-rated IOWA Conners scale; (2) CGI-I rated on a 7-point scale (1 = very much improved to 7 = very much worse), based on a review of parents’ ratings and interviews;[ 16 ] (3) Remission rate, defined as the rate of children with total score ≤5 based on IOWA Conners Behavior Rating Scale evaluated by parents; (4) Stroop Color-word Test (four tasks: Word reading, color reading, word reading of color-words and color naming of color-words)[ 5 ] to record completion times and the number of errors made during each task/test; (5) Coding Test (Digit Symbol Substitution Test; consisted of digit-symbol pairs): Children read the list of digits and drew corresponding symbols, and the number of correct symbols within 150 s time-limit was assessed; (6) Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), consisted of 13-item and measured the ability to display flexibility during schedule changes with a number of stimulus cards on which the shapes of different color, quantity and designs were read by the children. Children were then requested to match those cards with additional cards under changing rules.…”

“…[ 2 ] Primary school-aged children are affected approximately twice as frequently as adolescents; boys having twice the prevalence as girls. [ 3 ] It commonly manifests as cognitive dysfunction in working memory, verbal fluency, and executive processing speed[ 4 5 ] resulting in schooling difficulties such as disorders of learning and applying knowledge, along with limitations of family and social activities. The disorder may also continue into adolescence and adulthood, further impacting patients’ quality of life.…”

Cognitive Function of Children and Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Learning Difficulties

“…[ 9 ] The EF of ADHD patients has been found to be significantly worse than controls at 7–9 years old but normalized at 10–12 years old. [ 10 ] Children with ADHD have been found to be comparable to 2 years younger controls on inhibition and shifting functions, and the gap between groups on inhibition function became insignificant at 13–15 years old whereas that on shifting function remained. [ 11 ] In summary, based on the previous findings on cognitive function impairment in children with ADHD, LD, and their comorbid condition, we hypothesized that the comorbid group would have more severe cognitive dysfunctions than the pure ADHD group, and they would both have more severe cognitive dysfunctions than healthy controls.…”