Learning from Experiences of Ancient Subak Schemes for Participatory Irrigation System Management in Bali

Abstract

Subak irrigation systems have been well known since the ninth century. These systems are managed by a Subak association based on the Tri Hita Karana philosophy, as a faith of Balinese Hindus based on harmony between human beings and God, harmony between people and nature, and harmony between people and people. This philosophy underlies every activity of Subak farmers. To manage Subak systems, Subak associations and farmers pursue the Subak regulation called Awig‐awig Subak as the togetherness consensus that was originally announced by the King and nowadays by the Head of the Regency. As associations for irrigation system management, Subak associations have been already naturally adapted to participatory irrigation management (PIM). This paper has been prepared based on a literature study to portray centuries of experience with ancient Subak irrigation system management, in which PIM was represented by three linked aspects: PIM in irrigation system operation and maintenance; PIM with respect to socioculture and economics of agriculture; PIM in light of a religious community. While several of these systems are now under stress, the results of this literature study may hopefully contribute to sustainable PIM for the operation and maintenance of irrigation schemes in Bali during the forthcoming decades. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Efforts to preserve the sustainability of subak irrigation system in Denpasar city, Bali Province, Indonesia

“…Sometimes a single tektek uses long ranges of thumb tip with fingertips (called kilan) [14]. Tektek system [14,16]. In the subak system, the emphasis is justice in obtaining water.…”

“…In the 1980s a subak organization was formed which includes one river basin called Subak Agung and led by Pekaseh Subak Agung. Subak can also be subdivided again into smaller parts called tempek/munduk and led by Kelihan Tempek/Munduk, Kelihan Tempek/Munduk is under Pekaseh [16]. Subak organizational structure can be seen in Fig.…”

“…The series of rituals/religious ceremonies in subak is a religious ceremony based on Hinduism in Bali whose purpose is to ask God the Almighty manifested as Lord Vishnu (Preserver of Life in the form of water) and Dewi Sri, the manifestation of God Almighty as the Goddess of Fertility, to be given bounties and abundant crops, and to express gratitude during the planting season. The series of rituals are a manifestation of the implementation of the Parahyangan aspect of Tri Hita Karana [16] and include:…”

“…For the purpose of performing rituals together by Subak members there is Pura Subak/Subak's Temple (Pura Bedugul) in each subak area, Ulun Empelan Temple near the water intake or water source construction, Pura Ulunsuwi or Pura Masceti for big subak (subak gede) or some subaks whose water is from the same source. In addition, there are temples associated with the subak such as: Ulun Danu Batur Temple, Ulun Danu Beratan Temple, Ulun Danu Tamblingan Temple, Pekendungan Temple, Tanah Lot Temple and so on which are temples for performing Pekelem or Ngerestiti ceremony, to ask Lord Vishnu, the manifestation of God the Almighty as the world preserver whose physical form is water sourced from the lake, so that the existing lake is considered a sacred place that must be preserved because it is the source of life [16,17]. The series of rituals are still carried on by members and prajuru of subak although the series, the type, and magnitude of rituals are very different from one subak to another [13,18].…”

Analysis of factors affecting the intake gate operations of Gerokgak Reservoir for command areas of Subak Gede

“…Subak's main principle, Tri Hita Karana, is a Balinese Hindu philosophy about the harmonious human relationship with God (Parahyangan), nature (Palemahan), and fellow humans (Pawongan) [3]. This principle aligns agriculture and river basin management with nature, humanity, technology, and the characteristics of the landscape, soil, water sources, and rainfall [4]. The Subak irrigation system follows the contours of terraced paddy fields, resulting in reducing runoff, controlling water flow direction to lower areas, and retaining water on sloping land [5].…”