Maintenance of Gastrointestinal Glucose Homeostasis by the Gut-Brain Axis

Abstract

Gastrointestinal homeostasis is a dynamic balance under the interaction between the host, GI tract, nutrition and energy metabolism. Glucose is the main energy source in living cells. Thus, glucose metabolic disorders can impair normal cellular function and endanger organisms' health. Diseases that are associated with glucose metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and other metabolic syndromes are in fact life threatening. Digestive system is responsible for food digestion and nutrient absorption. It is also involved in neuronal, immune, and endocrine pathways. In addition, the gut microbiota plays an essential role in initiating signal transduction, and communication between the enteric and central nervous system. Gut-brain axis is composed of enteric neural system, central neural system, and all the efferent and afferent neurons that are involved in signal transduction between the brain and gut-brain. Gut-brain axis is influenced by the gut-microbiota as well as numerous neurotransmitters. Properly regulated gut-brain axis ensures normal digestion, absorption, energy production, and subsequently maintenance of glucose homeostasis. Understanding the underlying regulatory mechanisms of gut-brain axis involved in gluose homeostasis would enable us develop more efficient means of prevention and management of metabolic disease such as diabetic, obesity, and hypertension.

Screening of Musa balbisiana Colla. seeds for antidiabetic properties and isolation of apiforol, a potential lead, with antidiabetic activity

“…According to a 2016 WHO report, nearly 422 million people suffer from diabetics globally and is ranked in the top 10 causes of mortality . To ameliorate diabetes or related complications, many medicines have been investigated, and many of these are found to stimulate or enhance glucose uptake by activating insulin receptors . However, most of the drugs which are currently in use for the management of diabetics are reported to have many side effects like cerebrovascular disease, renal failure, diarrhoea, flatulence, hepatotoxicity and so on .…”

Two macamide extracts relieve physical fatigue by attenuating muscle damage in mice

“…Physical fatigue, usually described as the inability of muscles to maintain the required level of strength during exercises, can cause various disorders of the bio‐regulatory, autonomic nervous, endocrine, and immune systems . Numerous factors are responsible for fatigue during exercise, including glycogen and phosphocreatine depletion, accumulation of metabolites such as blood lactic acid (BLA) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), as well as homeostasis‐imbalance‐induced muscle damage . Physical fatigue can therefore be alleviated by repairing muscle damage along with elimination of metabolic products accumulated during exercise .…”

“…2 Numerous factors are responsible for fatigue during exercise, including glycogen and phosphocreatine depletion, accumulation of metabolites such as blood lactic acid (BLA) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), as well as homeostasis-imbalance-induced muscle damage. [3][4][5][6] Physical fatigue can therefore be alleviated by repairing muscle damage along with elimination of metabolic products accumulated during exercise. 7,8 The limited variety of anti-fatigue drugs, and their side effects, have created a need to seek potential alternatives with anti-fatigue effects, such as traditional herbs and functional foods.…”

Melatonin mediates mucosal immune cells, microbial metabolism, and rhythm crosstalk: A therapeutic target to reduce intestinal inflammation

“…Specifically, intestinal melatonin possesses immune regulatory properties in the gut as a fundamental component of neuro‐immuno‐modulation, such as acting as a regulator of intestinal inflammation, serving as an appropriate player in the immune system or working as a natural antioxidant for immune stimulation. These modulatory actions are carried out in different ways, including the amphophilic properties that are resistant to free radical attacks and the regulation and modification of various cells and cytokines in the immune system (Figure ).…”