Mangroves of Vietnam: Historical development, current state of research and future threats

Abstract

Vietnamese mangroves are among the most productive & biologically important ecosystems of the world; providing habitat/nursing grounds for commercial & non-commercial fish species, food, medicine, building materials/fuel for local communities, as well as carbon storage (blue carbon) & coastal protection from storm events. However, Vietnam's mangroves have been lost in recent decades (~38%) or degraded, predominantly driven by herbicides during the Vietnam War and later by conversion to aquaculture and coastal development, although there has been a recent slowing of this degradation as a result of restoration and protection schemes. In this review article, the current state of mangrove ecosystems in Vietnam, their evolution and restoration efforts are discussed in detail as well as highlighting challenges to management and rehabilitation schemes. Further discussion includes the socio-2 economic benefits derived from mangroves in Vietnam as well as recent developments in research with reference to major mangrove forests (Can Gio, Ca Mau and Red River Delta) in the country. Special attention is given to recent studies using remote sensing techniques, including advantages and future challenges, in mangrove research focussing on Vietnamese mangroves. The impacts of climate change are discussed and evaluated with a particular focus on sea level rise and changes to sediment budgets as a result of the increase in hydropower station on major river course.

Estimating Mangrove Above-Ground Biomass Using Extreme Gradient Boosting Decision Trees Algorithm with Fused Sentinel-2 and ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 Data in Can Gio Biosphere Reserve, Vietnam

“…The dry season begins in April and ends in November of the following year, whereas the rainy season occurs between May and October. The average temperature is approximately 26 • C, the annual rainfall is roughly 1300-1400 mm, and the relative humidity is approximately 80% [35]. This district is well-known for its mangrove reforestation and rehabilitation programs, not only in Vietnam but also throughout Southeast Asia [36].…”

Mangroves and shoreline erosion in the Mekong River delta, Viet Nam

“…The Mekong delta in Viet Nam (Fig. 1), the third largest delta in the world (Coleman and Huh, 2004), has a particularly well-developed mangrove environment (Veettil et al, 2019). The delta makes up for 12 % of the country's natural land and 19 % of its national population, and hosts a population of 20 million inhabitants (Mekong River Commission, 2010).…”

“…Following the ravages of the Viet Nam War (1960)(1961)(1962)(1963)(1964)(1965)(1966)(1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971)(1972) on the delta's forests, these important advantages have significantly impacted the mangroves of the delta, notably in the muddy southwestern and Gulf of Thailand areas where large tracts have been removed to provide timber for charcoal and for the construction industry, and to make place for shrimp farms and aquaculture (Phan and Hoang, 1993;Christensen et al, 2008;Veettil et al, 2019). Several recent studies have also shown that erosion is becoming increasingly rampant along much of the delta shoreline (Anthony et al, 2015;Besset et al, 2016;Allison et al, 2017;Li et al, 2017), leading to the recurrent displacement of coastal populations (Boateng, 2012) and increasing recourse to coastal protection structures, notably dykes (Albers and Schmitt, 2015).…”

First molecular examination of Vietnamese mudflat snails in the genus Naranjia Golding, Ponder & Byrne, 2007 (Gastropoda: Amphibolidae)

“…The country of Vietnam straddles some 13 degrees of latitude with a corresponding long coastline with biodiversity hotspot which are highly threatened 1 – 6 . In particular, mangrove forests which mainly occur in the Mekong Delta along the southern coastline, and also around the Red River Delta in the north, are being destroyed rapidly in spite of their importance to economics, coastal stability, and habitat for organisms 7 – 9 . Within the Mekong Delta, mangrove forests are particularly developed in Ca Mau and Bac Lieu provinces 9 .…”

“…In particular, mangrove forests which mainly occur in the Mekong Delta along the southern coastline, and also around the Red River Delta in the north, are being destroyed rapidly in spite of their importance to economics, coastal stability, and habitat for organisms 7 – 9 . Within the Mekong Delta, mangrove forests are particularly developed in Ca Mau and Bac Lieu provinces 9 . Besides these areas, a mangrove belt still covers part of the shoreline in Kien Giang Province also in the Mekong Delta, belonging to Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve, recognized by UNESCO in 2006 10 – 12 .…”