Microbial contamination of Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis: prevalence, microbial load and detection of extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Gram-negative bacteria

Usman, Muhammad; Sani, J.E.; Ibrahim, Ahmad; Olowo-Okere, Ahmed

doi:10.4314/ajcem.v22i2.17

Cited by 4 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 24 publications

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“…The finding in this study further revealed that the Naira notes of lower denominations (₦5 and ₦10) were significantly contaminated with bacterial isolates. These findings support reports from other studies that lower denominations show higher levels of contamination [18,[42][43][44][45][46][47]. Lower denominations are very often handled for different daily transactions than higher denominations.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 91%

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Antibiotic Profiles of Enteric Pathogens Isolated from Nigerian Currency Notes

Mofolorunsho,

Obaje,

Aminu

et al. 2023

PAJOLS

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Background: Currency notes are exchangeable fomites handled by many persons daily and can potentially carry enteric pathogens on their surfaces. Infections caused by these pathogens have a global impact on public health. This study aimed to analyse the Nigerian currency notes Naira for the presence of enteric bacteria, particularly drug-resistant strains. Methods: Sixty-four Nigerian currency notes were randomly collected from various sources. Using the spread plate technique, an aliquot of 0.1ml of 10-6 dilution of each sample suspension was inoculated onto Eosin Methylene Blue agar and Hektoen Enteric agar plates. Following incubation, colonies were counted and recorded in colony-forming units per milliliter, and morphologic features were observed. Bacterial isolates were then Gram-stained, tested for motility and characterized using standard biochemical techniques. Antimicrobial profiles of bacterial isolates were determined using the Kirby-Bauer modified disc diffusion method. Results: Preliminary analysis showed that 67.2% of currency notes were contaminated. The 100 Naira notes had the highest contamination rates with bacterial mean counts of 1.22×1010 cfu/ml. Three different species of enteric bacteria were isolated. The predominant pathogens were Escherichia coli (44.2%) and Salmonella spp. (44.2%). All isolates recovered were 100% susceptible to amikacin, gentamicin, and ciprofloxacin, while 97.7% were resistant to penicillin. Escherichia coli was resistant to ampicillin (100%) and trime-thoprim-sulfamethoxazole (89.5%). Conclusion: This study showed that the Nigerian currency notes harbour enteric pathogens capable of causing serious infections to handlers. Therefore, improved hygiene practices, especially after handling currency notes, should be encouraged to prevent the spread of these pathogens.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 91%

“…This figure is higher than the 52.5% reported in a previous study in Nigeria [18] but comparable to those in Saudi Arabia [40] and Nepal [41]. This report was, however, lower than the 93.9% reported in Cameroon [3], 97.1% reported in Ghana [42], and 100% recently reported in Nigeria [43].…”

Section: Discussioncontrasting

confidence: 60%

Antibiotic Profiles of Enteric Pathogens Isolated from Nigerian Currency Notes

Mofolorunsho,

Obaje,

Aminu

et al. 2023

PAJOLS

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“…(25) E. coli was found to be the most common contaminant of 25% of Nigeria's Niara banknotes in Bauchi metropolis, followed by S. aureus (12%). (26) In Sudan, Klebsiella pneumoniae was found to be the most common contaminant of 23% of banknotes, followed by Pseudomonas stutzeri (15%) and E. coli (12%). (20) The level of banknote contamination with bacteria in the present study was found to vary depending on the denomination.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Investigation of Bacterial Contaminants and Their Antibiotic Susceptibility on Yemeni Banknotes in Aden City, Yemen

Al-Hajj,

Mutahar,

Al-Surmi

et al. 2024

UST J Med Sci

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Background: Banknotes are among the objects frequently exchanged between people and can serve as a vehicle for the transmission of infectious agents. Therefore, the present study aimed to isolate and identify potentially pathogenic bacteria on Yemeni banknotes collected from various municipal sources in Aden city, south of Yemen. In addition, the susceptibility of the isolated bacterial species to commonly used antibiotics was tested. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on 240 Yemeni banknotes of various denominations randomly collected from people from different places in Aden city between November 2019 and February 2020. Swabs from the surfaces of banknotes were streaked onto blood agar, chocolate agar, mannitol salt agar and MacConkey agar and incubated at 37 °C for 48 hours. After isolation, bacterial species were identified and tested for their susceptibility to commonly used antibiotics using established techniques. Results: Out of 240 banknotes examined, 98.3% were found to be contaminated with bacteria, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) ranging from 96 to 99. Among the isolated bacteria, 17.4% were Gram-positive cocci, 33% were Gram-negative bacilli and 49.6% were a combination of both. The mean plate counts of bacterial colonies ranged from 163.6±51.0 colony-forming units (CFU)/ml (95% CI: 147.3–179.9) for banknotes with a denomination of 100 Yemeni rials (YRIs) to 257.1±52.0 CFU/ml (95% CI: 240.5–273.7) for banknotes with a denomination of 50 YRIs. Staphylococcus aureus was the most frequently isolated bacterial species, detected on 66.9% of contaminated banknotes, followed by Escherichia coli (60.6%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (42.8%). Regarding antibiotic resistance, most S. aureus isolates showed resistance to ceftazidime (80.1%), followed by ceftriaxone (78.2%), ampicillin (77.6%) and co-trimoxazole (69.3%). On the other hand, most E. coli isolates showed resistance to amoxicillin/clavulanate (84.6%), followed by ceftriaxone (79.7%), ceftazidime (76.9%), ampicillin (58.3%) and ciproﬂoxacin (58.1%), while most P. aeruginosa isolates showed resistance to ceftriaxone (83.5%), followed by ceftazidime (80.2%) and ciproﬂoxacin (54.9%). Conclusion: Most banknotes in circulation in Aden city are contaminated with bacteria, predominantly S. aureus and E. coli, with lower denomination banknotes tending to have higher contamination levels. The high contamination rate of banknotes raises concerns about their potential in transmitting infectious diseases and emphasizes the advantages of transitioning to cashless payments. A substantial proportion of bacterial species isolated from banknotes exhibit resistance to commonly used antibiotics, raising concerns about the possible transmission of multidrug-resistant bacteria through the exchange of banknotes. Therefore, it is necessary to raise awareness and improve hygiene practices to minimize the transmission of bacteria and antibiotic resistance through the exchange of banknotes.

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“…Eight samples from each denomination were collected in different sterile sample bottles and camphor was introduced to it for six (6) hours, the other samples were left untreated, the camphor was removed carefully by means of sterile forceps and 10mL of distill water was added to each denomination of the treated and the untreated samples, they were allowed to stand for two (2) hours. The isolation of microorganisms from the two groups was done by using pour plate method as described by Sam [12], both the nutrient agar and the potato dextrose agar plates were incubated and observed for the presence of growth and the colonies on nutrient agar plates were counted and expressed as colony forming unit per meal.…”

Section: Isolation Of Microorganisms From the Currency Notesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This mode of pathogen transfer has been implicated in serious health hazards. Microorganisms such as Rhizopus, Aspergillus flavus, Mucor, Staphylococcus aureus and have been isolated from naira notes [6], this suggests that the currency notes could serve as fomites for some infectious agents.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Antimicrobial activities of camphor on Nigerian currency notes

AKINRULI¹,

AJAYI²,

ODELEYE³

2022

Magna Sci. Adv. Biol. Pharm.

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The use of purses and pouches were recommended to prevent protracted body contact with currency notes in order to abate microbial contamination of the notes, however many currency users do not comply with the use of purses, and many pouches where these notes are kept are usually dirty. It is therefore imperative to look for a way of disinfecting the notes and the environment in which it is kept. Camphor has been discovered as an effective insecticide and has been used by people to safeguard fabrics without adverse health effect. It is instructive to investigate the possibility of using the substance as antimicrobial agent for currency notes. One hundred and twenty- eight (128) samples of currency notes containing different denominations were collected at random from different sources in Ado- Ekiti metropolis. Sixty-four (64) samples were treated with camphor for six hours; the other sixty-four samples were left untreated. Isolation of microorganisms was carried out using pour plate method, microbial loads and antimicrobial activity of camphor on the samples was determined. Isolates from the samples included Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Aspergillus flavus, Mucor, Rhizopus nigrican and Scopulariopsis, but E. aerogenes, Rhizopus nigrican and Scopolariopsis were not isolated on the ₦500 and ₦1000 notes of the treated samples. The microbial loads of untreated currency notes ranged from 1.70 ×102 – 2.4× 102 cfu/ml while that of treated samples ranged from 1.00 × 102 – 1.2 × 102 cfu/ml. The reduction in the number of microorganisms and the microbial loads of the treated samples is evidence that camphor could be used as an antimicrobial agent on currency notes.

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Microbial contamination of Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis: prevalence, microbial load and detection of extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Gram-negative bacteria

Cited by 4 publications

References 24 publications

Antibiotic Profiles of Enteric Pathogens Isolated from Nigerian Currency Notes

Antibiotic Profiles of Enteric Pathogens Isolated from Nigerian Currency Notes

Investigation of Bacterial Contaminants and Their Antibiotic Susceptibility on Yemeni Banknotes in Aden City, Yemen

Antimicrobial activities of camphor on Nigerian currency notes

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